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Elements of Lettering 



PKKl'ARF.I) FOR STI'DEXTS ()] 



The International Correspondence Schools 

SCRANTON, PA. 



A Treatise on the History, Classification, and Prac- 
tical Application of the Various Styles 
of Letters of the Alphabet 



FIRST EDITION 



SCRANTON 
THE COLLIERY ENGINEER COMPANY 

1899 

U ■ 



\% 









ONE COPY RECEIVED. 

Library of GongHKNI 
Office of ttW 

JAN 20 1900 

RegltUr of CopjelpfS 

( ^*\X p-i/oi ^"•'fcw ^ JosJ -A 






51683 



Entered according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1899, 

By The Colliery Engineer Company, 
In the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 






-V 



SECOND COPY, 

Printed by 

The Colliery Engineer Company, 

Scranton, i'.\. 






^ PREFACE. 

The bound volumes of our Courses in Lettering have been 
prepared on somewhat different lines from those of our other 
Courses. Believing that the plates would be of more value to 
the student if he could handle each one separately than if they 
were bound together in one large volume, we have printed them 
in folio form, with a plate on one leaf and the instructions for 
drawing it on the other. All the plates belonging to each 
Course have been placed in a handsome and durable portfolio, 
which is sent to the student instead of a bound volume. The 
students in those Courses that give instruction in Lettering 
only, receive, in addition to the plates, an Instruction Paper, 
with its accompanying Question Paper, entitled " Elements of 
Lettering." This Paper contains the instruction necessary to 
enable the student to properly apply his knowledge of letters 
and their formation to suit every requirement, both in treat- 
ment and modification, and also in their various arrangement in 
all forms of inscription and combination designs. This Paper 
gives a complete education in the art of lettering in all its 
branches wherein a knowledge of colors is not necessary. The 
present volume contains this Instruction Paper. 

These Courses in Lettering have been prepared by a gentle- 
man who has had a very wide experience in studying the origin 
of letter formation and in teaching the art of lettering, and one 
who is a thorough master of the subject in all its branches. 
Great care has been exercised in the selection of the plates 
P containing the various styles of the alphabet. We feel 



iv PREFACE. 

confident that nothing equal to these plates has ever before 
been published. The utmost pains have been taken to give the 
student the true form of the various styles of letters shown on 
the plates. The Courses have been carefully arranged to meet 
the requirements of every one engaged in any business what- 
ever that demands a knowledge of letters and their construction. 
Only such instruction and plates are given as have a direct 
connection with the particular Course selected by the student. 

The International Correspondence Schools. 



CONTENTS. 



Elements of Lettering. 

Page. 

Introduction 1 

History of the Alphabet 2 

General Rules 10 

Mechanical and Freehand Lettering 12 

Component Parts of a Letter 13 

Spacing of Letters 14 

Punctuation IS 

Rules for Punctuation 19 

Shading . . 22 

Letter-Face Lighting and Shading 25 

The Highlight : 27 

Cutting In Letters 27 

Classification of Letters . . . . v 29 

Ornamental Letters 29 

Grotesque Letters 31 

Illuminated Capitals 32 

Effects in Lettering '. 35 

Condensing, Elongating, Telescoping, and Interlacing 35 

Outlining and Filling In 38 

Designing 39 

Ribbons 40 

Panels 42 

Inscription Designing 40 

Stencil Patterns 48 

Purpose of Stencils 48 

Material for Stencils 49 






vi CONTENTS. 

Page. 

Geometrical Figures 52 

Triangles 52 

Circles . 53 

Ornamental Curves 54 

The Ellipse 55 

Modifications of the Fundamental Styles 56 

Mechanical Lettering 62 

How the Work Should be Sent 74 

Plates 75 












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Elements of Lettering 



Elements of Lettering. 



INTRODUCTION. 

1. Purpose of TMs Course.— It is the purpose of this 
course of instruction to combine the classical with the practical 
so as to meet the needs of all students desirous of studying the 
esthetic and antique, as well as the plain and simple, styles of 
lettering. The plates are therefore arranged and classified on a 
simple but progressive system, calculated to lead the student 
gradually from the plain and simple to the most difficult styles, 
but omitting from the course all such as are obsolete or not in 
common use. 

Before requiring the student to apply himself to a knowledge 
of the present forms and classifications of the letters of our 
alphabet, he should become familiar with their history and the 
primitive forms of writing. He should also note the important 
national changes that have caused a transition from one form 
into another, until our present advanced era has been reached 
with its great variety of styles, distinctively different in 
character one from another, and each arising from some 
important period in the world's history in which the funda- 
mental or parent style was closely allied to a corresponding 
style of architecture. 

In order that the student may derive the greatest benefit from 
this course in lettering, he should not rest content with merely 
reading this Instruction Paper carefully once or twice, but 
should study its contents carefully throughout his entire course. 
It is only by practice and steady progress in acquiring a knowl- 
edge of the styles and formation of letters that the real value 
and importance of much of the instruction given in this Paper 
can be rightly understood and its full meaning appreciated. 

§1 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



HISTORY OF THE ALPHABET. 

2. Classification. — The wonderful achievements in the 
arts of printing, photo-engraving, lithography, etc. have been 
the means of transforming the letters of the alphabet into a 
variety of forms or styles, which may be classified under three 
general heads : Plain, Ornamental, and Grotesque. The history 
of our alphabet and of the forms known as the fundamental 
styles will be found not only of interest but also of great profit 
to one who is to devote himself to the art of lettering. The 
degree of perfection attained in the alphabet, not only in 
phonetic value, but also in simplicity and completeness, makes 
it a monument of the intellectual advancement of the present 
day — a condition to which the people of all ages have contrib- 
uted — although the reader may never have considered its 
source nor the many changes necessary to its growth and per- 
fection. The twenty-six signs, or letters, that we call the 
alphabet are separated into two classes : those representing no 
syllabic sounds in themselves, which are called consonants; and 
those possessing two or more such sounds, called vowels. The 
latter in some cases are scarcely more than a breath sound, but 
each has a clear phonetic value, and fills an important place in 
our written language. By means of other characters placed 
above the vowels, every word may be written to express its 
proper sounds. We are, therefore, enjoying today the fruits of 
the achievements of the human intellect through forty centuries 
of development ; for, in tracing the origin of the alphabet and 
the signs that led to its construction, we are compelled to go 
back to the dispersion of the human race through a period of 
over four thousand years, each epoch of which furnishes inter- 
esting developments in the growth of our letters. It will be 
impossible in this short treatise to fully consider this interesting 
history and growth, or give more than a passing glance at the 
world's primitive history ; although in it is to be found the 
source of the forms whose transitions from one system of char- 
acters to another give us our present alphabet. Nor can we 
dwell even on the relation these characters bear to one another. 
The degree of intelligence attained in each period of human 



§1 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 3 

history is marked by the progress made in the methods of 
writing, which enabled its people to record events, impart 
knowledge, and transmit messages to one another. 

3 . Ideograms. — The Scriptures inform us that when Baby- 
lon and Nineveh were built all people were of one language, and 
the similarity of the Babylonian, Egyptian, and Assyrian sign 
languages gives some evidence of this fact. The descendants of 
Noah are supposed to have occupied these localities after the 
dispersion : Shem, that of Babylon and Eastward ; Ham, North- 
eastern Africa ; and Japheth, Western Assyria and Asia Minor. 

Each system of writing began with rude pictures of objects, 
more or less conventional, which gradually became the repre- 
sentatives of words, afterwards becoming the symbols of letters, 
or elementary sounds. We can, therefore, trace the transition 
from the ideogram, or expression of thoughts by means of pic- 
tures, to the phonogram, or expression of sounds by means of 
drawn or written symbols. Many ideograms are in common 
use at the present day, which proves that the Egyptian method 
was not without some merit. For instance, the sign $ is derived 
from the monogram U. S. The barber's pole — the red stripe of 
which symbolizes a "blood-letter" (a custom of past ages) — 
the three balls used by the pawnbroker, the American flag, 
the sign per cent. (%), the algebraic signs, and many others 
are all ideograms. 

4. Cuneiform Writing. — The letters of our alphabet are 
the outgrowth of the ancient Hebrew alphabet and Egyptian 
hieroglyphics (the earliest form of writing), as well as of the 
Assyrian cuneiform characters. In tracing to its origin the 
form of each letter, we are surprised at the marvelous trans- 
formations these characters have undergone before reaching 
the simplicity that marks their present construction. While 
alphabetic systems have become simplified, the Chinese system, 
on the other hand, which is not alphabetic, has grown more 
and more complicated, and affords an example of how a people, 
isolated for four thousand years from the rest of the world, 
were unable to advance beyond the ancient system of ideo- 
graphic writing. The Chinese system is evidently the outgrowth 



4 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. § 1 

of the cuneiform characters, which are wedge-shaped, and are 
arranged in groups to express a thought. The simplicity of 
our alphabet system compared with the Chinese may be appre- 
ciated when we consider that a boy ten years old, in an Ameri- 
can school, has acquired the same facility in reading and 
writing English that would take a Chinese student twenty- five 
years to accomplish in the study of Chinese characters. 

5. The Arabic and Roman Numerals. — Without a 
general knowledge of ancient history it is impossible to form a 
clear outline of the history of writing, as one is inseparable 
from the other. From the confusion of tongues to the exodus 
of the Israelites from Egypt, a period of several centuries, we 
know that the three continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa 
were largely peopled ; and, though Chinese legends point to 
periods much earlier than this, the system by which they have 
come to us, being based on object pictures, produces no evi- 
dence as to their reliability. The Hebrew writing, supposed 
by some authorities to be the outgrowth of the so-called Semitic 
writing, does not owe its origin to this early period ; for there 
is sufficient evidence to show that the Hebrew alphabet did not 
come into existence until later. In the middle of this Semitic 
period, however, occurs the birth of Ishmael, from whom the 
Arabian race is descended, and to this race we are indebted for 
our present numeral characters 1, 2, 3, etc. The system known 
as the Roman was in use much earlier, and probably originated 
in ideographic writing. The digits I, II, III, IIII were origi- 
nally pictures of the fingers ; the V was shown by the whole 
hand, the fingers collected and the thumb spread apart. The 
X was expressed by both hands together, each being in the 
position used to indicate the V. The increase or decrease of 
value was indicated by placing a digit before or after the V or 
X. This system is still in use for certain purposes, one of 
which is the numbering of the hours on the clock dial. 

6. The Hebrew Alphabet. — The progress and develop- 
ment of all systems of writing are marked by national changes, 
and, therefore, when entering on a second historical period of 
about a thousand years, beginning with the exodus from Egypt 



ELEMENTS. OF LETTERING. 



and reaching to the captivity of Israel and Judah, we find a 
nation of at least 4,000,000 people leaving Egypt and afterward 
forming a most important element of the divisions of nations 
and one strongly influencing the many systems of writing. To 
this great people, it is believed, was given an alphabet, and a 
language in laws and commandments, embodying civil as well 
as ecclesiastical polity. The purity of this alphabet has 
remained to the present time, surviving thirty centuries, the 
only changes being the present Hebrew characters, which 
assume more of the square construction than the originals. 
From this nation also springs another system or alphabet — that 
of the Samaritans — but before considering this let us turn our 
attention to another country and people, the Phenicians. The 
Israelites occupying Palestine were neighbors of this aggressive 
and thrifty people, and were brought into harmonious relations 
with them. The chief cities of Phenicia, Tyre and Sidon, were, 
during the reign of Solomon, maritime centers of great activity. 
It is assumed, therefore, that the Greek alphabet came directly 
from the Hebrew and Phenician, while the Phenician in turn 
was evolved from the Assyrian, Egyptian, and Moabitish. 

T. Tlie Samaritan Alphabet. — We find that the Samari- 
tan alphabet has Hebrew as a base, with a strong interspersion 
of Assyrian and Chaldaic. Israel, about the middle of this 
period, was divided into two kingdoms, the two tribes constitu- 
ting the kingdom of Judah and the ten tribes that of Israel. 
The latter, as well as the Egyptians and Phenicians, suf- 
fered severely from the Assyrian and Babylonian invasions. 
These powerful eastern empires took captive the ten tribes of 
Israel, thereby causing their complete downfall and loss of 
national identity. The Mosaic laws prescribed that the soul 
that did not observe certain ceremonies after eight days would 
be cut off from Israel ; the ten tribes failed to observe these 
ceremonies as a nation, and therefore lost their indentity in the 
Hebrew family. They returned to Samaria subsequently, how- 
ever, and held to a revised Pentateuch — hence the lost ten tribes 
of Israel and their relation to the Jews. Mention is made of 
this to assist the student in locating the origin of the Samaritan 



6 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



§1 



alphabet, which is so made up of others that little or no 
reference is usually made in regard to its origin, bearing as it 
does so close a resemblance to the primitive Hebrew. The 
only examples of the earliest alphabets are to be found on 
monuments or tabulated inscriptions, on coins, and on frag- 
ments of utensils. Among these the principal ones during this 
period are the Baal-Lebanon Bowl, 10th century B. C. ; the 




Fig. 1. 

Moabite Stone, 9th century B. C. ; and the Siloam Inscription, 
7th century B. C. This period closes with the captivity of the 
remaining two tribes in Babylon 588 B. C. 

8. The Plienician Alphabet. — The Phenician, as previ- 
ously stated, is the source of our phonetic alphabet ; and the 
ascendency and decline of the Grecian empire and the establish- 
ment of the Roman marks another period, during which the 
alphabet characters attained their present development, as 
shown by the inscription on the Arch of Titus, built 70 A. P., 
a cut of which is shown in Fig. 1. In recapitulating what has 



§ 1 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 7 

thus far been stated, we have satisfactory proof that our 
phonetic alphabet came from the Hebrew, but descended 
through the Phenician branch. 

9. The alphabet characters have slowly evolved from 
hieroglyphic writings, first from syllabic signs, and these forms 
must have been developed from verbal phonograms. The 
verbal phonograms were adopted from ideograms, which could 
have originated only from picture writing. Surrounded by 
such advantages as the Hebrew and the Egyptian characters, 
and all other forms of writing, it is not surprising that the 
Phenicians should have constructed an alphabet of clear 
phonetic value, which afterward gave birth to the classic Greek. 
The name of every letter of the Hebrew has a significant 
meaning, while the Greek names, though similar, are meaning- 
less. For instance, the first four letters of the Hebrew and 
Greek alphabet are as follows : 

HEBREW. GREEK. 

Aleph (ox) Alpha 

Beth (house) Beta 

Gimel (camel) Gamma 

Daleth (door) Delta 

10. The Greek Alphabet. — Several centuries of the 
Hebrew period elapse before the Greek alphabet becomes an 
important factor in the formation of our alphabet, in fact not 
until after the fall of Greece as a universal empire. But as 
early as 880 B. C. there came with the birth of the Greek 
alphabet a most intellectual conception of literature, art, and 
architecture, of which subsequently the Latins w r ere only 
imitators. 

1 1 . Tlie Latin Alphabet. — Although the Greek alphabet 
still remains, evolution continues as long as the imperfect exists, 
and with the fourth universal empire comes the Latin alphabet. 
As the Roman empire was composed of almost the entire 
civilized world, their alphabet formed the base, or w r as the 
mother of all modern styles of writing. 'The Roman alphabet 



8 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. §1 

characters of the first century are practically the same as the 
ones in use today known by the name of Egyptian, Antique 
Egyptian, and French Roman. 

12. The Renaissance. — From the beginning of the 
Christian era there seems to have been no apparent growth of 
the alphabet for many centuries. The dark ages were evidently 
a germinating or budding period, and until the 15th century 
brings us to an era historically known as the Renaissance, or 
revival of art, we find no progress whatever. About the middle 
of this century (1443) printing was invented, but it was many 
years before this important discovery accomplished much to 
benefit mankind ; for it must be remembered there was no cheap 
material on which to print, the parchment used to engross on 
being far too expensive for the purposes of printing. The 
process of printing had a very beneficial influence on the 
methods of writing, however, and incidentally on the alphabet 
itself. The letters had become so elaborate by this time as to 
appear almost like ornamental enigmas. The process of print- 
ing necessarily required for the separate types the simplest 
forms of characters, and the printers were compelled, therefore, 
to return to the forms used during the first century ; the Latin 
and Western Roman styles were therefore used, the former 
being known at the present day as Antique Egyptian and the 
latter as French Roman. 

13. It should be borne in mind that ornamentation in 
lettering such as marked the period just prior to the 15th 
century is not an improvement in style. The first principles to 
be observed in forming letters is simplicity, as the most impor- 
tant qualifications of the letters should be their legibility. 
Ornamentation when resorted to is always an evidence of 
failure to produce the perfect letter, for if the perfect is attained 
the additional work is superfluous. 

14. Results of the Renaissance. — The Germans during 
the 15th century, then located in Northern Italy, were not slow 
to become imbued with the spirit of this new development in 
art, and Spain, France, England, and in fact all Europe was 



§ 1 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 9 

affected by the great impulse, largely on account of the achieve- 
ments of an Italian family known as the Medici. Previous to 
this, the art of lettering was confined almost exclusively within 
the monasteries. The ecclesiastical devotees or monks were 
skilful in the art of calligraphy, and exhibited wonderful dex- 
terity in their work of designing and illuminating capital letters 
on their manuscripts, many of which are extant today ; some 
dating back as far as the 5th or the 6th century are especially 
clever. It is to be regretted, however, that these early monks 
possessed a knowledge of chemicals for removing the inscrip- 
tions from earlier manuscripts from which they copied, thereby 
depriving the world of records far more valuable than their 
own. During this whole period prior to printing there were 
many varieties or styles of the alphabet originated. The style 
known at present as the Egyptian was originally known as the 
plain Roman, or the style in which the early Greek and Latin 
alphabets were written ; while the Roman letter of the present 
day is almost identical with the Medieval Roman of the period 
indicated by its name. The Gothic, the earliest specimen of 
which dates to 1349 A. D., was possibly the next style and 
derived its origin from the ogival or pointed arch, character- 
istic of the Gothic style of architecture. 

15. The Old English, 1400 A. D. (specimens of which are 
still in Westminster Abbey), was possibly the outgrowth of the 
8th century Romanesque, the Old German letters following 
closely on the Old English. There are many of the German 
and Italian Renaissance styles that still remain. The Script 
writing (the ordinary cursive kind), out of which has developed 
the most graceful and classic curves possible to produce, was of 
Anglo-Saxon origin. The style known as French Roman, 
having the horizontal strokes considerably narrower than the 
vertical, the extremities of these being finished with an antique 
spur, were of first-century origin, and were used by the Western 
Roman provinces. The Italic script is a modern interpretation 
of the Medieval Italian print. There are several forms of the 
Church Texts, which originated from the Old German as well 
as the Old English. 



10 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. §1 

16. Modern Styles. — Of the styles of more recent date, 

the style known as Rund-Schrift (round-writing), which is an 
adaptation of the German Renaissance, was the invention of a 
German. Aside from this we name with much pride several 
styles known the world over as American writing ; these are 
the Full Block, Half Block, both plain and antique, Railroad 
Block, Round Full Block, Spencerian Script, and Shippers' Box 
Marking. These styles are used chiefly by letterers, while the 
varieties in type which are of purely American origin are so 
numerous that we would not attempt to classify or name them. 
Their form and style are peculiarly identified with printing, 
and are seldom if ever used by letterers ; while to the art of 
printing under its many heads is due all progress made in the 
invention of styles of writing since the 15th century. 



GENERAL RULES. 

17. The few general rules following are very important to 
the student, and it is necessary, therefore, that they should be 
carefully observed and followed. 

1. Do not attempt any form or style of letter other than the 
style furnished for each lesson. 

2. Do not allow the eye to dwell on that which is inartistic ; 
for, just as truly as u evil associations corrupt good manners," 
just so surely does association of the eye with that which is out 
of proportion, distorted, or irregular, leave an impression which 
is lasting in its effect on, and by no means easy to dispel from, 
the mind. When the student has advanced to the study of 
inscription designing and ornamentation, he will better appre- 
ciate the importance of this advice. 

3. Do not become discouraged if you do not make as rapid 
progress as you should like to. The assertion is often made 
that "it is not possible for one to become a master of an art 
or profession, without a natural talent for it " ; this may be true 
along some lines, but it is not true in regard to lettering, 
especially if behind the effort there is persistent will power and 
a patient determination to succeed. Concentration of thought 
and constant practice must of necessity follow these qualities. 



§1 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 11 

4. Give as much time to practice as possible ; do not be 
satisfied to make a letter several times only, but practice each 
letter until } 7 ou have mastered it, and have learned perfectly 
all the rules governing its construction in every characteristic 
line and stroke. 

5. Be sure you thoroughly understand all of the instruction 
pertaining to each plate before beginning to practice. Study 
the instructions carefully with the plate before you. 

Strive to excel ; despise mediocrity. 
The advantages offered in this course should induce every 
student to aim above a general knowledge of letters only, and 
to seek to attain a position equal to that occupied by the few 
that fully understand the many forms of alphabetic characters 
and all their applications. 

18. Materials Required. — When practicing in the eve- 
ning, use a good steady light, and place this directly in the 
rear of the table on which you are working, and from 12 to 18 
inches above the work, while the eyes should always be pro- 
tected from it by means of an eye shade. The student will 
need the following materials : 

Drawing instruments 1 velvet rubber; 1 Faber's im- 

Drawing board, 16 in. X 21 in. proved ink eraser 

T square, 22 h inches i doz. sheets Whatman's drawing 

2 triangles, 45° and 60° paper, 12 in. X 19 in. ; i royal 

1 scale size 

\ doz. thumbtacks 2 red sable brushes, Nos. 3 and 4 

Drawing pencil 1 pad ruled paper, 2 in. X 7 in. 

If oz. bottle waterproof drawing ink 

19. Draftsmen and other students interested in a similar 
class of work will find these tools sufficient for practice and 
specimen work. But for the benefit of the students that wish 
to apply a knowledge of lettering to sign painting we would 
advise that the practice work be done on cardboard or Manila 
pattern paper, using a camel' s-hair brush, and card black, the 
preparation of which will be given hereafter. By this process 
the letters can be made any size, but the plate sent in for 
correction must invariably be 8J in. X 15 in., inside the border 
lines, which are If inches from the edge of the paper. 



12 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. § 1 



DEAWING THE LETTERS, 



MECHANICAL AND FREEHAND LETTERING. 

20. Instrumental and Freehand Drawing Defi- 
nitions. — Drawing is the art of representing objects on a 
convenient surface, such as paper, by means of lines or colors, 
or both. The representation of an object in this manner is 
called a drawing. If the pencil, brush, pen, or marker by 
which a drawing is made, is guided wholly or partly by instru- 
ments, as, for example, by a straightedge or by compasses, the 
drawing is called an instrumental or mechanical drawing. If no 
instruments are used, the lines drawn by the free hand, and all 
dimensions laid off by eye only, the drawing is called a free- 
hand drawing. A preliminary rough or unfinished drawing 
is usually called a sketch. 

2 1 . Purpose of a Drawing. — The purpose of a drawing 
is either to assist the memory or to convey to others an idea of 
the shape, size, combination, form, color, or appearance of some 
object. Drawings also aid us in perfecting ideas when we are 
designing or inventing. The practice of freehand drawing 
trains both the hand and the eye. It enables one to estimate 
distances and lay them off on a drawing correctly, and to com- 
pare the relative sizes of angles, lines, and figures in general. 
It thus trains the hand to draw quicker and better with instru- 
ments. The ability to draw well freehand is one of the most 
useful of accomplishments. 

22. There are but two plates or styles in this course that 
are in the true sense mechanical styles, that is, made exclusively 
with the aid of a straightedge and other instruments. These 
are the Full-Block Plate and the Half-Block Plate. The 
others are made up of straight lines and curves. These curves, 
though slight in many cases, are all drawn by the free use of 
the hand, and therefore, so long as freehand drawing enters into 
their construction, we have chosen to classify them under this 
head. We advise the use of the straightedge, however, in 



§1 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 13 

making all straight lines, whether in mechanical or freehand 
styles, but do not recommend the use of the compasses in 
making curves in freehand letter styles, unless a perfect circle 
is required. 

COMPOXEXT PAETS OF A LETTER. 

23. Stroke. — The stroke is the term applied to the width 
between the outlines forming the letter ; when applied to 
letters possessing more than one width between its outlines, it 
always refers to the greatest width, and usually the vertical 
portion of the letter, as distinguished from the "fine line." 

24. Fine lane. — The fine line is the line connecting the 
strokes or lines attached to them, forming a part of the letter, 
and is usually a horizontal line. 

25. Spur. — The spur is a small projection from the 
extremity of a letter, and exists in several varieties, according 
to the style of letter on which it is used. 

26. Face. — The face of a letter usually includes all the 
space forming a rectangle enclosing the extremities of the 
letter, but is often applied to the surface within the outline 
of the letter. 

27. Shade. — This term is used to describe the treatment 
or finish of a letter, and is applied to a letter to give it the 
appearance of relief from the background ; also to cause one 
part of the stroke to appear projected or depressed from 
the surface. 

28. Block. — This is similar to the shade in effect, and is 
used to give a letter thickness, or, as its name expresses, to give 
it a solid block effect, in which case the shade also is sometimes 
used beyond the block in the form of a natural shadow. 

29. Outline. — The outline of a letter is the line that 
forms the letter, leaving the body of the stroke open. 

30. "Width.. — The width of letters always applies to the 
space occupied between the vertical lines to the extreme right 
and left, and never refers to the height. 



14 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. §1 

31. Background. — The background is the surface on 
which the lettering is placed ; it is also sometimes called the 
ground, or field. 

32. Condensing. — Condensing is a term applied to the 
closer spacing of the letters, or to making them narrower than 
normal width. 

33. Elongating. — Elongating is the term applied when 
the letters are drawn out to a greater width than the normal. 
This term should not be confused with the appearance of a con- 
densed letter, with the relation of its height to its width. 

34. Cyma. — The cyma is a character emplo}^ed to equalize 
the spacing of irregular letters by placing it where the space is 
open and requires something more than the plain letter to 
make the word appear solid. This character derives its name 
from the Greek, its undulating form resembling a wave. The 
cyma is usually attached to the letters A, L, M, W, etc. ; it is 
used in but few styles of lettering, while in some styles it forms 
a part of the letter itself. 

SPACING OF LETTERS. 

35. Importance of Spacing. — Next in importance to 
the formation of letters stands the art of arranging them in 
words in a way calculated to make the word not only legible 
but symmetrical ; this is called spacing. Nothing will destroy 
the harmony of a line of perfectly formed letters more effect- 
ively than a disregard of this art. Aside from a few general 
rules, the letterer must depend on his own good judgment, and 
cultivate the ability to proportion all spaces according to the 
combinations of letters. Irregular combinations occur in man} r 
ways, but true proportion must alwaj^s reign in a word accu- 
rately spaced, so that its regularity is apparent to the eye at a 
glance. To accomplish this, special attention must be given to 
the following rules : 

3G. Correct and Incorrect Spacing. — Make the inter- 
spacings equal to one another, or as nearly so as possible. To 
do this may require the shortening of some extended letters, 
and the spreading apart of letters having vertical or parallel 



§ 1 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 15 

lines. This is shown by Figs. 2 and 3, in which the right and 
the wrong spacing can be seen. The L in Fig. 2 is shortened a 
full stroke in width instead of one-half stroke, which is the 
normal width of the letter ; and the space between the A and 
the W is about one-half the width of the letter A at its base. 
At the top of the A is shown the cyma used to relieve the space 
which cannot be equalized. The cyma is also often used in a 

OVW LAW 

Fig. 2. Fig. 3. 

vertical position on the L, the point almost resting on the lower 
right-hand spur. Fig. 3 shows the effect of the rule followed by 
some letterers, who allow the same space between the extremities 
of all letters, and make no allowance for unequal-sized inter- 
spaces. The parallel strokes of the A and the W are the same 
distance apart as the L and the A, leaving the L full width. 
Many such combinations occur, and unless we observe this 
rule we may expect no better effects than in Fig. 3. Two 
projecting letters, either L's or T's, often occur together, as 
in such words as "millinery," " butter," etc., and at the 
same time in connection with letters that are full face or 
occupying full width top and bottom, as shown in Fig. 4. In 
such cases the L should be made the width of the stroke 

ILLN UTTEI 

Fig. 4. Fig 5. 

narrower than the full- face letters, and the spaces between the 
latter and the right-hand letters next to them should be one- 
half the width of the stroke. There should be a space of the 
full width of the stroke between parallel-stroke letters, as the I 
and the L. In Fig. 5 the T's are shortened only one-half the 
width of the stroke, allowing the same space between them and 
the letters on each side as allowed in Fig. 4 between the end of 



16 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



the right L and the stroke of the N. The letters, therefore, 
with which we shall experience the most difficulty in spacing, 
are the slanting- stroke letters A, K, V, W, and Y and the pro- 
jecting letters F, J, L, and T. 

37. Full Block and Roman. — When spacing such 
styles as the Full Block and Roman observe the following 
rules : When two letters having spurs come together, as 




leave the width of the stroke of the letter between the spurs. 
When a spur and a plain-stroke letter come together, as 



HO 



leave 1| width of stroke between body or stroke of letters. 
When two spurless letters, as 




come together, leave space of one stroke between them. Slant- 
ing-stroke letters, such as the W and the Y, leave the half-stroke 
space between the spurs, and the same space if the next letter 
be a spurless letter. 

38. Egyptian, Half Block, and French Roman, — The 
Egyptian, Half Block, and French Roman can be spaced by the 
following rules : Leave width of stroke between all parallel- 
stroke letters, and one-half this width between projecting letters. 
Between round letters coming together on rounded sides, as 



NOC 



leave £ stroke. Between words never allow less than the space 



§1 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 17 

of a full- sized letter, including spurs ; and, if possible, leave 
1J spaces. Never allow letters to touch each other, except 
shaded letters, and not then unless it is unavoidable. Two 
round letters coming together, such as 



oo 



in condensed styles, having no spurs, may be allowed to almost 
touch each other without having the effect of doing so ; while 
such letters as 



JE 



produce the effect of being closer together than they really are. 

39. Care must always be exercised in selecting a style of 
letter to suit a space as well as a word. The placing of a word 
in a given space not appropriate to it will cause the letters to 
be either so separated by spaces or so condensed for want of 
space as to make them unsightly and difficult to read. Under 
the heading of "Inscription Designing," the subject of the 

SENATE 



Fig. 6. 



selection of styles to meet all requirement is fully treated. 
The appearance of the spacing of letters is similar to that of a 
compan} T of soldiers. If a portion of the company be separated 
by a space greater than the manual prescribes, it has the 
appearance of a separate detachment and is noticeable at a 
glance. In the same manner, if a word is spaced properly 
throughout with but one exception, it has the appearance of 
two words. For example, take the word Senate shown in 
Fig. 6, where the space between the N and the A gives it the 
effect of two words. 



18 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



PUNCTUATION . 

40. There is seldom sufficient attention paid to this impor- 
tant subject among letterers, as may be observed on the signs 
on almost any public street. 

41. Origin of the Apostrophe. — The apostrophe is fre- 
quently misplaced in the plural possessive case. To fully 
understand the rule governing the possessive case and the 
origin of the mark used to denote possession, we should first 
know that the apostrophe is used to indicate that something 
has been omitted. If we should look on the fly leaf of some 
very old book, we would see the name of the owner, "John 
Smith," and underneath, the words "his book," which was 
the early form of expressing the possessive. Later, it became a 
custom to contract the name and article possessed — thus, 
"John Smith's book" — and to insert the apostrophe to indi- 
cate that the "his" was omitted. By bearing in mind this 
simple custom, one can always locate the proper place for the 
apostrophe, according to the location of the pronoun. To 
further illustrate, take, for example, the words "men's and 
boys' clothing." To use the method of our ancestors we 
would express it, "men, their clothing, and boys, their cloth- 
ing." According to the rule, the apostrophe and final "s" 
should be substituted for the pronoun, making the phrase read 
"men's and boys' clothing." Thus, the letter "s" would not 
be necessary after the apostrophe in the word "men's," as the 
pronoun "their," which has no final "s," is used; but for 
euphony, or to obviate harshness of sound, the " s " is often 
added after many words, and also omitted from words ending 
with " s " for the same reason. 

42. The Comma. — The comma is frequently used where 
the period is the mark required. For instance, the words 
"John Smith. Law Office." make two complete and inde- 
pendent statements, and each should be terminated by a 
period. However, if the words used were " John Smith, 
Lawyer." the case would have been different, as there is but 
one statement, which should be terminated by the period. 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 19 



RULES FOR PUXC'TrATIOX. 

43. Period. — The period is put at the end of even- 
word, phrase, or sentence that is complete by itself, and 
not interrogative or exclamatory. It is also placed after 
all abbreviations. 

Quit yourselves like men. The M. D. addressed his letter to James 
Howard,' LL. D. 

44. Colon. — The colon is an intermediate point between 
the semicolon and the period, and is used as follows : 

1 . After words that promise a series or statement of some- 
thing important. 

His accomplishments, he said, were not many : a stout heart, a firm 
resolve, and — fifty cents. 

2. Before an important remark added to a sentence, espe- 
cially when it sums up the sentence, or presents the meaning 
in another form. 

Avoid evil doers : in such society an honest man may become 
ashamed of himself. 

45. The Semicolon. — The semicolon is used to separate 
clauses that are themselves divided by the comma, or that 
require a point greater than a comma and less than a colon ; or 
to separate the parts of a loose series. 

He was courteous, not cringing, to superiors ; affable, not familiar, to 
equals ; and kind, but not condescending or supercilious, to inferiors. 

46. Comma. — The comma is the most frequently used of 
all the punctuation marks. The chief purposes for which it is 
used are the following : 

1. To separate the terms of a closely related series, or two 
such terms when the connective is omitted. 

Hedges, groves, gardens. 

It was a dark, desolate region. 

2. To separate terms that are contrasted or otherwise dis- 
tinguished, and terms of which a part in one might be referred 
improperly to the other. 

He is poor, but honest. 



20 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. §1 

3. To set off a word, phrase, or clause that is parenthetic, or 
that comes between other parts and breaks their connection. 

You will then, however, be in no better condition. 

4. To set off a modifying word, phrase, or clause that is not 
closely connected with what it modifies, or that is removed from 
it by inversion. 

Behold the emblem of thy state in flowers, which bloom and die. By 
Americans generally, the hero of the Battle of Manila Bay is beloved. 

5. To set off words or phrases used independently or 
absolutely. 

Ristalfo, give me what is mine, and that right quickly. 

6. To separate the predicate from its subject, when the 
subject is very long, and has a clause, or consists of punctu- 
ated parts. 

The fact that he is allowed to go unpunished, makes him more 
insolent than ever. 

7. To separate clauses that are neither very closely nor very 
loosely connected. 

There mountains rise, and circling rivers flow. 

8. Short simple sentences or clauses seldom require a point 
within them ; and phrases or clauses that stand in close connec- 
tion with that on which they depend seldom require a point 
before them. 

Tell me when it was that you saw him after he returned. 

47. Interrogation Point. — The interrogation point is 
placed after every complete direct question, whether it forms a 
complete sentence or only a part of a sentence. 

What mean'st thou by that? Mend me, thou saucy fellow? 

— Julius Caesar. 

48. Exclamation Point. — The exclamation point is 
placed after a word, phrase, clause, or sentence that indicates 
great surprise, grief, joy, or other emotion in the speaker. 

Woe unto thee, Chorazin ! Woe unto thee, Bethsaida ! 

49. Dash. — The dash is chiefly used for the following 
purposes : 



§ 1 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 21 

1. To show omission caused by interruption. 

Cassius. Yet I fear him : 

For in the ingrafted love he bears to 
Csesar — 
Brutus. Alas ! good Cassius, do not think of him. 

2. To show emphasis or suppressed feeling, or to show an 
unexpected turn in thought or style. 

Heaven gives to its favorites — early death. 

3. To set off a parenthetical phrase, especially when 
emphatic or when there are other points within it. 

To render the Constitution perpetual — which God grant it may be — 
it is necessary that its benefits should be practically felt by all parts of 
the country. — D. Webster. 

4. Before echoes, or where the words ' ' that is " or 
1 l namely ' ' are understood. 

The four greatest names in English poetry are almost the first we 
come to — Chaucer, Spencer, Shakespeare, and Milton. 

50. Parenthesis. — The parenthesis is used to enclose 
some incidental remark or explanation that breaks the regular 
construction of the sentence and can be omitted without injur- 
ing the grammatical sense. 

Know then this truth (enough for man to know), 
Virtue alone is happiness below. — Pope. 

51. Quotation Marks. — Quotation , marks are used to 
enclose words taken from the saying or writing of another person. 

The doctor made the sage remark, " while there's life, there's hope." 

52. Apostrophe. — The apostrophe is used to denote the 
omission of one or more letters. 

'Tis pleasant, sure, to see one's name in print ; 
A book's a book, although there's nothing in 't. 

— Chatterton. 

53. Hyphen. — The hyphen (-) is used (1) at the close 
of a syllable that ends a line when the remaining part of the 
word must be carried to the next line ; (2) to join the parts of 
compound words. 



22 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. §1 

54. Ditto Marks. — The ditto marks (" ) are used to avoid 
the repetition of the word or expression directly above them. 

55. Underscore. — The underscore is a line drawn under 
words in manuscript or copy to give them special emphasis, 
showing that they are to be printed in Italic or capitals, one 
line denoting Italic, two lines denoting small capitals, and three 
lines large capitals. 

SHADING. 

56. Shading on the Left Side. — Shading is used to 
cause the letter to appear in relief, and thereby take away the 
flat or plain appearance. Shading may be placed on the top, 
bottom, or either side of a letter, but it should at first always 
be placed on the bottom and left side ; as, for several reasons, 
it is best not to try to shade a letter on the right side until the 
student is familiar with the left, as he will use this side for all 
practical purposes. The reasons for giving this side the prefer- 
ence are : (1) Regularity and symmetry of the shade occurs 





Fig. 




in more of the letters when shaded on the left side, such as the 
S, E, C, R, etc. Fig. 7 illustrates this advantage, and shows the 
single stroke on the left at (a), and the broken shade from the 
stroke on the right side at (fc). (2) By shading to the left, 
the letterer can accomplish more in a given length of time, and 
produce a better effect in his work when finished. (3) The 
majority of strokes in shading to the left are drawn towards 
the letterer, while in shading on the right the brush is pushed 
to the right, which in itself is a strong argument in favor 
of the former. 



1 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



23 



57. Shading should always be executed on the assumption 
that the light falls on the letter at an angle of 45°. This 
principle can best be shown by reference to Fig. 8. The maxi- 
mum width of the shade occurs at a, a, midway between the two 
lines b, 6, and then diminishes to lines b, b, where it is com- 
pleted. The tendency of the average letterer is to give too much 
thickness where shade begins or finishes. All letters must be 
shaded on the same angle at every point, and, after practice, 
this angle becomes as well established with the letterer as the 
horizontal or vertical lines. Every characteristic point of 
the letter must be shown in the shade, as at a, Fig. 9, and all 





Fig. 10. 

must be of equal width in all letters exGept the round charac- 
ters, whereon the shade reaches this width only at the maxi- 
mum point of thickness in the letter. 

58. Block Shade. — There are many methods of obtain- 
ing beautiful effects in shading, which will be considered sepa- 
rately. The block shade, as its name indicates, consists of the 
effect of making the letter appear to have thickness. This is 
done by the use of two shades, the dark, or stronger, one being 
used underneath all horizontal strokes, and the lighter tint on 
the side of all vertical strokes. The block shade can be placed 
on the top or right side of the letter, in which case the block, 
as well as the letter itself, is shaded as shown in Fig. 10. Here 
the shade has below and to the left of the letter the appearance 
of a cast shadow. 

59. Cast Shadow. — The cast shadow is also used in con- 
nection with heavy-stroke letters, block shading, etc. , giving the 



24 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



letter the appearance of standing upright, either on a level or 
on a slanting surface. The top of the shade is on a line about 
one-fifth of the height of the letter below the top. The shade 
is made on an angle of 30° to the left, the point resting on the 





Fig. 11. 

lower left corner of the letter, as in Fig. 11, where (a) shows 
the letter with a block shade and cast shadow, and (b) shows 
the simple outlined letter and cast shadow. The shade is 
sometimes used by duplicating the letter in the form of a 
shadow cast on the background, one-fifth of the height of the 
letter below the top, and on the same angle (45°) as the 
regular shade, as shown in Fig. 12. 

60. Relief Shade. — Relief shade is obtained by leaving a 
space between the letter and the shade on the same angle as 




Fig. 13. 



the shade, as shown in Fig. 13, making the space and shade of 
uniform width. When used in connection with block shade, 
it is often of the nature of the natural shade, and is added to 
the block shading without any line or space between. The 



1 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



25 



relief shade when used as a natural shade on a white or tinted 
ground is made to represent the strength of the shadow cast 
from an object on the ground on which the letters are placed. 
This shade is produced with the pen by means of lines, but 
more effectively by the brush and transparent color. 



LETTER-FACE LIGHTING AND SHADING. 

61. Importance of Subject. — The treatment of the face 
of the letter is a very important consideration. The letterer 
often finds himself confronted with a line of extremely plain let- 
tering that, even after it is shaded, remains flat and unsatis- 
factory. This effect can sometimes be overcome by the addition 
of lights and shades placed directly on the letter face itself. 
The face of the letter may be variegated or blended from a light 
to a dark shade, in which case a sharp outline must surround 
the entire letter, as shown in Fig. 14. Lighting and shading 




Fig. 14. 



Fig. 15. 



Fig. 16. 



are used with best results on heavy-faced letters, as all treat- 
ment of the face of a letter by shading has the tendency to 
considerably reduce the apparent width of the stroke. 

62. Effects Produced. — Another effect is produced by 
running bars of color across the center of the letter, and dimin- 
ishing these bars in width to a point midway from center to top 
and bottom, as in Fig. 15. Diminishing circles are also used on 
letters of lighter face, such as the Roman, and can be made to 
occupy the entire face, or, as is shown in Fig. 16, terminating at 
a given point, which must be regularly observed throughout the 
line of letters. 



26 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



§1 



63. Heavy Ilighlig-ht. — The heavy highlight is used in 
the treatment of the face of the letter by making the upper half 
of the letter a uniform tint, either by lining, as shown in 
Fig. 17, or with colors. The darker shade b is placed on the 
lower half of the letter, allowing a highlight on this equal in 
strength to a, or the upper half. The highlight c on the upper 
half of the letter is left white. By a combination of the shades 
of colors many beautiful effects can be produced by this means, 
using such colors for a as blue, green, gray, or gold color, the 
last of which combines with sienna for the lower portion, and 
with cream color for the upper highlight. Blue or green when 
used should have tint and shade of the same color. 

64. Beveled Shading. — Shading on the face of a letter to 
represent a beveled appearance is another treatment that gives 
a line of lettering a finished and pleasing effect. In this 





Fig. 17. 



Fig. 18. 



process it is necessary only to observe the rules of light and 
shadow, as shown in Fig. 18, by shading the letter on the left 
and bottom sides from a line drawn through the center of the 
face of the letter. This form of shading is often used on a 
gold or silver letter by the use of transparent colors such as 
varnish stained with asphaltum, which is used on gold, and 
varnish darkened with lampblack is used on silver letters. 
There are many other methods of treating the face of letters by 
the use of ornament, whereby it loses its identity as a plain 
and becomes an ornamented letter. 



§1 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 27 



THE HIGHLIGHT. 

65. As its name indicates, the highlight is used to illumi- 
nate or light up a letter, which it does with wonderful effect. 
The highlight is placed on the edge of the letter, opposite the 
shade, or on the right and top of the strokes. It is always a 
fine line of either gold, silver, white, or cream, according to the 
color of the letter on which it is to be placed. If the letter is a 
colored letter, gold or silver can be used. If the letter is gold, 
nothing will serve the purpose of a highlight so well as cream 
or white. On silver or aluminum, white only can be used. 
To be most effectual this highlight must be a fine, even line. 
The heavy highlight is used in letter-face lighting and shading, 
and is explained under that head. 



CUTTING Ltf LETTERS. 

66. Uses of Cut-In Letters. — This term is applied to 
that style of treatment wherein the letters are drawn in outline, 
and the background is filled in around them. In inscription 
designing this method is resorted to frequently, in order to 




Fig. 19. 



break the monotony of several lines of plain lettering. The 
insertion of a panel or ribbon, on which the letters are ' ' cut in, ' ' 
provides a colored background, against which the letters are 
outlined, allowing the same color for the letters as the main 
ground of the inscription design, as shown in Fig. 19. The 
color of the panel and background will govern very largely the 
character of letter to be cut in. If the general ground is white 
or any light color, and the cutting-in, or outline, color is very 
dark, a heavy-faced letter may be used without causing any 



28 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



§1 



appearance of clumsiness or ill proportion. But should the 
letters be in gold, a much lighter-faced letter would be neces- 
sary, as the effect of the gold luster is to make the letter appear 
larger than it actually is. A very fine line of gold on a black 
ground can be readily distinguished even at a great distance, 



Aimm 



Fig. 20. 

and a white letter on a blue ground can be read at a greater 
distance than any other combination of colors. 

67. Points to be Observed. — In the practice of cutting 
in letters the student should begin on the plainer styles, such as 
the Full Block, Half Block, etc. , before endeavoring to execute 
the Roman or Script. Fig. 19 shows the letters in outline, 
and also with the background filled in. In order to insure 
uniformity of width in the horizontal elements of the letters, 
faint lines may be drawn through the entire word by means of 
a thread or string charged with charcoal, chalk, or other material 
that afterwards may be readily dusted off. Cut-in letters may 





Fig. 21. 



Fig. 22. 



usually be permitted to stand closer than other styles of work, 
as they are seldom shaded, though when they are shaded, the 
regular spacing should be used. 



68. Irregular-Surface Lettering. — "Where letters are 
cut in on an irregular surface, such as a ribbon, as in Fig. 20, 



1 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



29 



they must be maintained at a uniform angle and not changed 
to suit the angle of the ribbon, as at a. The importance of this 
will be considered more fully later on, but its connection with 
the subject now under discussion must not be overlooked. 
When letters are cut in on an inclined panel or ribbon the let- 
ters should be maintained in a vertical position, as in Fig. 21, 
or perpendicular to the lines of the panel, as in Fig. 22. 



CLASSIFICATION OF LETTERS. 



OEXAMEXTAL LETTERS. 



69. Scope of tlie Subject. 

alphabets in which no line 
or curve enters that is not 
absolutely necessary to 
show their form or outline ; 
a line thus added may 
place them among the orna- 
mental letters. Although 
it will be impossible to go 
over the entire ground 
covered by this subject, 
there are endless vari- 



-The plain letters include all 




ll!!ililll!iilllil!lllililillllillil!illJlllilillllll!lli>llli>lli!< 



Fig. 23. 



as 

eties of ornamental letters, 

the styles found to be most essential will be considered. There 

are many letters into which 
ornamental construction 
enters but slightly, while 
others are composed en- 
tirely of ornamental forms. 
The ornamental letters of 
most value to the student 
are those on the face of 
which the ornament ap- 
pears, either in the form 
, or designs in arabesque. 




Fig. 24. 



of relief scrolls, geometrical figures 



30 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



70. Ornamental Forms. — Letters classified as ornamen- 
tal are of so great a variety that such as are used in connection 

with the shade to produce 
a bent or rounded effect, as 
^ shown in Figs. 23-24, might 
be classed with this style. 
Fig. 23 shows the ground 
to be a plane surface and 
the letter bent or warped, 
while Fig. 24 shows the 
letter to be perfectly 
straight, and fastened with 
screws, while the ground has the effect of being bent or warped. 

71. A letter that in itself is perfectly plain but surrounded 

orna- 




FlG. 25. 



ornamentation, as shown 



called 




Fig. 26. 

mental letter also, though as a matter of fact the letter itself 
may be perfectly plain. 

72. Other Forms. — Other ornamental forms are as fol- 
lows : The relief- ornament letters 
shown in Fig. 26 can be made in 
various ways. The whole form 
of the letter may be treated in 
this manner, as at (a), or by 
simply suggesting it in the middle 
or edge of the letter, as in (6), 
(c), and (d). A letter may be 
plain, so far as its face is concerned, but on account of its 




Fig. 27. 



§1 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING 



31 



form and construction it may be classified as ornamental, 
as shown in Fig. 27. 

There are many forms of designs used in letter-face orna- 
mentation, either filigree work, geometrical designs, or a com- 




bination of both. In Fig. 28 are shown three letters of the 
face-ornament class, the one at («) being decorated with filigree 
work, while (6) shows a geometrical design, and (c) simply 
the cross-line shading. 



GROTESQUE LETTERS. 

73. All letters, as previously stated (Art. 2), are either 
plain, ornamental, or grotesque. The first two classes follow in 
their outline construction the forms of the fundamental styles 
and their many variations, but this third class is entirely 
different, The grotesque letters have no recognized or classical 
form, such as would place them among 
the styles of the alphabet, but are made 
by using natural objects, which are arranged 
so as to conform to any regular or irregular 
shape that will cause them to represent a 
letter, and any form, therefore, is allowable 
so long as the letter may be recognized. 
To accomplish this, objects such as a 
human figure, a piece of rope or ribbon, 
broken boards, leaves, vines, and trunk of the tree, are used. 

Of the three latter forms, the rustic letters are made. The 
leaves, tendrils, stump, and trunk of the tree form the material 
used for an entire alphabet, one letter of which is shown in 
Fig. 29. These letters can be made very artistic, and show 




Fig. 29. 



32 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



§1 



great skill in their arrangement. And, while they may be 
pleasing to the eye, they are of no practical importance to the 
student in the study of the forms of the letters, as their pro- 
portions are purely arbitrary. Fig. 30 shows the forms of 




some of the grotesque letters, in which (a) is formed by a 
human figure, (6) by broken boards, and (c) with a piece of 
rope. Any alphabet may be constructed of these forms as the 
fancy of any artist may dictate, even though he may be 
ignorant of the true form or proportion of the simplest style 
of the alphabet. 



ILLUMINATED CAPITALS. 

74. History and General Use. — The monks of the 
Middle Ages were the first to make use of this art, many 
specimens of which would indicate that they must have spent 
days in designing and executing a single letter. In treating 
this subject here, our purpose is simply to call attention to the 
most simplified forms of illuminating, especially those forms 
designed for the use of the average letterer. The practical use 
of this art is now confined to lithographing, engrossing, card 
work, and ecclesiastical decorations. The printing and litho- 
graphing artists have displayed wonderful skill in recent years 
in illuminated work, especially on show-bill designs. The use 
of colors to light up the capital letter gives a surprising effect 
to a complete line of lettering, and is done by a simple combi- 
nation of designs of most harmonious colors with the letter 
executed, and by using colors of striking contrast to the tints 
used to form the background. Such colors as can be com- 
bined to give a brilliant effect are used in the form of a plaque, 



SI 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



33 



part panel or both, on which the letter is brought out most con- 
spicuously, as shown in Fig. 31. The illumination practiced 
by engrossers is usually of such a nature as to produce a 
finished and pleasing effect without resorting to colors. There 
are many ways by which this can be accomplished. One 
method is simply by the use of a pen and black ink, as shown 
in Fig. 32, outlining the letter first, then making the orna- 




FIG. 31. 

mentation surrounding it conform to any desired design, 
thereby giving the letter prominence. Great care should be 
taken that the ornamentation is not made more pronounced 
than the letter, but rather that the former is used as a means to 
bring out or illuminate the letter. 

75. Card Work. — For card work, the illuminating of capi- 
tals gives tone and finish, and relieves a show card of extreme 



34 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



§1 



plainness. For practical purposes, such as attractive adver- 
tising cards, banners, etc., the illuminating of capitals will be 
found to hold an important place, and is coming into favor and 

more general use. There are also 
many forms and designs employed 
as a panel, on which illuminated 
capitals are placed, in a solid or 
outlined letter ; the outline letter, 
however, being the most convenient, 
is most frequently used, especially 
when either the panel or the letter, 
or both, are to be treated in water 
colors. The letter outlined is some- 
times filled in with carmine or other 
bright color, while the panel sur- 
rounds it with a tint of cream-white, yellow, or green. Two or 
three shades of color are sometimes used, either variegated or in 
the form of line work on top of tint, as in Fig. 33. 

76. Ecclesiastical Decorations. — For ecclesiastical 
decorations, such as wall panels containing inscriptions, which 




Fig. 32. 




Fig. 



are usually in the Old English, Gothic, or Church Text style of 
letter, as well as for display mottoes in schools, halls, etc., where 
the Old English or other suitable lettering is used, the first 



§1 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



35 



capital (and sometimes all capitals) is illuminated, either on 
a panel of gold, silver, or color. In all cases the panel is made 




Fig. 34. 

to conform in a general way to the letter, as Fig. 34 shows. If 
gold or silver is used for a ground, the letter must be a dark 
color. If a colored ground (which is preferable) is used, a 
gold or silver letter will be 
found to light up with colors 
and produce a most satis- 
factory result. 

77. Heraldic Shield. 

An heraldic shield is often 
brought into use, on which the 
illuminated capital is placed. 
There are many designs or 
forms of this shield, which 
can be changed to suit any form of a letter, as shown in Fig. 35. 




Fig. 35. 



EFFECTS IK LETTERING. 



CONDEXSEfG, ELONGATING, TELESCOPING, AND 
INTERLACING. 

78. Condensing Eetters. — In conforming letters to fill 
a required space, we are often compelled to resort to various 
means of accomplishing our purpose, without making the 
inscription appear distorted or out of proportion. When 
the panel or space to be lettered is much shorter than would 
admit of a regularly proportioned letter, we are compelled to 
resort to the condensing of the letters, observing generally the 



36 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. §1 



rules of their proportionate width. All styles of letters can 
be condensed except Railroad Block, which was invented 
exclusively for the opposite purpose. To illustrate more fully, 

COMPANY 



Fig. 36. 

the word Company is used to show the two forms of condensing, 
as well as the two forms of elongating. 

79. Example of Condensed letter. — In Fig. 36 is 

shown the condensed form, as may be seen by comparing 
the proportions of the letters with those of the Half Block 

Plate. The letterer may condense 

his letters to the width of those of 

Fig. 36, and find they are still too 

large for the required space ; the 

vertical strokes can then be reduced 

to one-half the regular width, and 

FlG> 37, the horizontal strokes maintained at 

the regular, or even greater, width, and less space allowed 

between letters, as in Fig. 37. This reduces the word to 

almost one-third that of Fig. 36. 

80. Elongating Eetters. — To elongate the same word in 
the same style of letter, make the height, for convenience, one- 
half that of Fig. 36 ; thus it will be observed that if this 
elongated letter were twice the height it is in Fig. 38, it would 



the proportions of the 

COMP 




M 




Fig. 38. 



occupy a space almost four times that of Fig. 36. To farther 
elongate this word, reverse the rules of Fig. 37, by reducing 



§1 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



37 



the horizontal strokes one-half the regular width, keeping the 
vertical strokes regular width ; or these may be increased to 
twice their regular width if desired, also giving more space 
between the letters, as shown in Fig. 39. By this means a word 





IVI 




Fig. 39. 



.can be made to fill a space much too long for the regular 
proportion given this style of letter. 

81. Telescoping:. — Telescoping is not of so much prac- 
tical advantage as condensing or elongating, and is used mostly 
to produce a relief effect. This is done by giving the letters 
the appearance of overlapping one another, as shown in Fig. 40. 




Fig. 40. 



Every alternate letter is dropped enough below the line to 
prevent confusion of horizontal lines and to preserve the com- 
plete identity of each. These letters can be shaded on the 
background but not on the face, as this would tend to destroy 
their legibilit} T . 



82. Interlacing. — Interlacing to its fullest extent enters 
into the construction of a monogram ; but the form of inter- 
lacing at present under consideration is somewhat different, 
and includes the interlacing of an entire word. This is very 
often resorted to by the designer, especially in the use of 
eccentric letters, which are made to extend far beyond the 
limits of the fundamental styles from which they are derived, 
as shown in Fig. 41. 



38 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



§1 



OUTLINING AND IILLIXG IX. 

83. Water Colors. — Water colors are used for all classes 
of designing, and especially in commercial advertising work, as 
a small quantity of lithographic or printed work executed in 
black outline can be very economically colored or filled in with 
water colors by hand. A knowledge of the handling of water 
colors is, therefore, a necessity to the letterer. Dry color in 
powdered form is used when large areas of blended color are 
required. This is applied with a wad of cotton, with which the 



3r^irf 




dry color is spread^ evenly over the surface by gentle rubbing. 
The outline of the design is the guide for all water-color work 
in lettering panels, floral designs, etc. The wider this outline is 
made, the easier will be the work of flowing the color evenly, 
and the less the liability of running over the line ; the fine 
outline, however, is used in many places, especially for 
floral designs, etc. 

84. Use of Water Colors. — Water colors are used to the 
best advantage on white show cards, having a dull finish, which 
readily absorb the moisture. The outline is made with the 
glossy black to which the water color will not adhere, but flows 
to the edge and stops. By this outline method, beautiful 
designs in flowers and highly illuminated effects can be pro- 
duced. Water colors also serve the purpose of shading or 



§ 1 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 39 



tinting borders of cards outside of the fine line. For shading 
the letters, a brush is used that will as nearly as possible make 
the shade with one stroke, as water color cannot be worked over, 
when once applied, without showing brush marks. Therefore, 
the color must be flowed on evenly with a quick, well-directed 
stroke, using care not to apply the brush again over a shaded 
part when the excess water has been absorbed by the card. 



DESIGNING. 

85. Scope and Importance. — The subject of designing 
is an almost inexhaustible one, and covers a broad field. There 
are, however, many general rules and many commonly accepted 
forms, which establish a foundation on which new ideas may 
be built. Designing will ever be an art that, aside from these 
general rules, involves the faculty for producing original con- 
ceptions or combinations which must conform to the dictates 
or system of a recognized class or school. Very few letterers 
are designers in the full sense of the word, and few of our best 
designers are good letterers. Students in this course should 
cultivate a knowledge of this most important subject. An 
inscription of several lines of lettering, arranged so as to show 
intelligence in design, proves that the letterer has accomplished 
that which is of as much importance as a knowledge of the 
proper formation of letters. The first thing, therefore, is to 
study the underlying principles of designing from the curve, 
which forms the first departure from a plain line of letters, to 
the combination, pictorial, and the wide field of original designs, 
the possibilities of which lie beyond the limits of this Instruction 
Paper. In showing the many ways in which curved lines are 
used for inscriptions, we will not attempt to make lines of 
letters, but allow the curves and straight lines to represent these. 

86. Some Simple Combinations. — In Fig. 42 is shown 
the combination of the plain curve and straight line. The 
Roman letter or some light-stroke style is used on the curved- 
line, block, or other heavy-stroke letters on the straight line. 
The letters on the curve must be either vertical or parallel with 
the radius of the curve. 



40 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. § 1 

Next in importance is the compound curve, or ogee, which is 
used when the inscription is composed of two words of about 
equal length, as in Fig. 43. Here, two ogee curves are used 





Fig. 42. Fig. 43. Fig. 44. 

under a single curve and above a straight line. Where one 
word occurs, we use the double ogee, which is made by uniting 
two ogee curves, as shown in Fig. 44. 

In many designs, the inclined straight lines are used, as 
shown in (a) of Fig. 45, or diminished in width from the 
outside to the center of the inscription, as shown in (b) of 
the same figure. 

While these and many other lines and curves are used in 
designing an inscription, several straight lines of lettering 





(a) Fig. 45. (&) 

require a great amount of skill in equalizing and arranging 
them properly, even in straight lines. In such designs only 
one style of letter (but made of various sizes, as the arrange- 
ment may require) is often used throughout the inscription. 



RIBBONS. 

87. The Ribbon. — The ribbon is used in many forms, 
and can be made to suit almost any style of inscription by 
folding or extending. When folded, the part representing the 
back of the ribbon is called the return, and must be shown by 
color or shading. The ribbon is made either in a regular curve 
or with irregular and broken edges. Fig. 46 shows the ribbon 
in some of its many forms, of which the names of its component 
parts are as follows : a, the bow ; b, the broken band ; c, the 
regular band ; r/, the returning band ; e, the streamer ; and 
/, the roll. 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



41 



The ribbon is used also in a square or geometrical form, in 
which case the graceful and natural wave does not enter, as 
shown in Fig. 47. This form of ribbon serves its place in con- 
ventional or set designs. 




The ribbon is used also in the same form as the double ogee, 
and when thus used it must be made symmetrical on both ends. 
The fold can also be made in middle of ogee, as shown in 
Fig. 48, without distorting its symmetrical effect, but rather 




Fig. 47. 



giving it ease and grace, which should always be the aim 
of the designer. 

88. Shading the Ribbon. — In shading a ribbon, to 
make it appear natural always observe the law of light and 




shade. If the light should strike on one part of the ribbon, 
the opposite side corresponding with it must necessarily be 
in shadow. 

The study of light and shade is the first principle of design, 



42 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



and has been considered with reference to individual letters 
under the head of " Shading." In designing, as in drawing 
from nature, strict adherence to this law is absolutely necessary, 
as the slightest disregard of it is noticeable to the skilled eye. 
We have seen the advantage of shading single letters to the left, 
and it is well to practice the shading of designs on the left also, 
in order to avoid such mistakes as are likely to occur, by show- 
b ing a shade on two opposite sides of an 

object or of several objects, when the v y are 
combined to form one single design. 

89. Reflected Light. — In the sha- 
ding of ribbons or any rounded object, there 
occurs what is called the reflected light. 
It shows the edge or line which, without 
the observance of this principle, would 
otherwise be lost where the darkest shaded 
parts come together. Fig. 49 shows this principle of reflected 
light, the greatest strength of the shade being somewhat removed 
from the extreme edge of the object, as at a, while the shadow 
cast by the object itself is strongest against the edge at b. 




Fig. 49. 



PANELS. 

90. Rectangular Panels. — The panel has more forms 



than the ribbon, and is made to serve many purposes. 



The 




Fig. 50. 



simplest form is that of a rectangle, within which is sometimes 
drawn an inner panel of the same, or different, shape shown 
in Fig. 50. The surroundings of the panel can be made either 



§1 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



43 



simple or elaborate, as the material at hand in this style of 
design is inexhaustible. One of the many forms of the exterior 
of the panel is such as shown in Fig. 51. This work may be 




Fig. 51. 



so elaborated that the inner panel on which our lettering is to 
be placed becomes of minor importance, as shown in Fig. 52. 
This, of course, is not such a design as should be used to dis- 
play a conspicuous inscription. We must, therefore, keep in 




Fig. 52. 



mind the fact that the inscription, if important, is of greater 
value than the ornamentation, the latter being employed only 
to embellish it, without detracting from its prominence. 



44 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



§1 



91. Part Panels. — Another form of panel is that which 
is combined with some other design, in which the panel is not 
in the foreground of our design, as shown in Fig. 53. When 
the panel is left unfinished on one end, as in Fig. 53, it is 
known as a part panel, and many beautiful effects can be 
produced by its use. In this the damask principle is used, the 
panel being blended into the ground by means of color or with 
the pen. The lettering is also blended ; the extreme of light 
color is thus contrasted against the darkest part of the panel, 




Fig. 53. 

and the dark lettering is continued on the light ground 
outside of the panel. 

92. Elliptical and Round Panels. — Elliptical and 
round panels are also used and can be* made extremely orna- 
mental. A touch of simple ornament in a design will often 
counterbalance a quantity of plain work, and give a general 
effect of ornamentation throughout. Fig. 54 shows an ellip- 
tical design, with simply a frame of ornamentation, which is 
sufficient for the purpose of ornamenting a design ; when such 
work is placed on other plainer material in a design, it gives 
the whole the appearance of completeness. 



93. Rococo Panels. — Another style of panel that has 
come into our modern designs is the rococo panel ; not only is 
the scrollwork used for the panel itself, but it is frequently 
applied to the embellishment of many parts of the design. 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERIXG. 



45 



Fig. bo shows one of the great variety of shapes the rococo 
panel assumes, as this style can be made to conform to the 




Fig. 54. 



lines of any inscription, or to form a part of nearly any 
style of a design. 

The same style of scroll is frequently used for the purpose of 
filling up an open space in a design, although this is done also 
through the employment of natural forms, such as palms, olive 
or laurel branches, flow- 
ers, leaves, and conven- 
tional objects, vases, f^^^f$%^^ 



lamps, lions, griflms, etc. , 
and, in fact, any object 
pertaining to, or in har- 
mony with, the inscrip- 
tion. If the inscription 
of a design pertains to 
music, the lyre may be 
used to embellish the 
design ; if it pertains to 
the trades, such tools as 
are identified with the 
trades may appear in the 
design. If literature or science is the subject, symbolic objects 




Fig. 55. 



46 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



§1 



can be used in a variety of ways. A large collection of choice 
designs should always be on hand for reference, from a review 
of which a suggestion may often be obtained that leads the 
designer's thought into an original channel, which, as we have 
stated before, is the chief aim of the designer. 



INSCRIPTION DESIGNING. 



94. Proportion. — A piece of lettered work, no matter how 
artistic or elaborate it may be in itself, is not satisfactory if 
improperly proportioned or balanced. The tendency in design- 

*^ Permanent 




_ \3j> 

Association 

OF CHICAGO. 



Fig. 56. 



ing is to distribute the strength over the entire surface. If we 
keep in mind the law of art in a picture, it will help us in 
designing. The foreground should be the strength of a picture, 



1 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 47 



the middle distance should be the semistrength, while the distance 
should be indistinct. This is the key not only to successful 
designing, but also to satisfactory lettering. The top and bot- 
tom lines of the design shown in Fig. 56 are Roman ; the words 
"permanent" and "association" are styles of heavier face, 
while the strength of the inscription is centered in the two 
middle lines. The selection of the proper style of letters to suit 
each requirement should be carefully studied. A single word 
or line of letters can be made of any form or style, but as soon 
as another line is added the letterer is compelled to study their 
combinations, and to make their relation to each other har- 
monious to the eye and in proper proportion. In an inscrip- 




Fig. 57. 

tion of several words, the most important should be displayed 
in the most prominent style of letters, such as the Block or 
Egyptian, while the less important should be of smaller letters, 
and of such styles as one-stroke letter, or caps and lower case of 
the Roman or other styles. This rule does not interfere with 
the general effect produced in Fig. 56. If it should happen 
that the inscription cannot be made to conform to one rule in 
designing, it is best to change the design accordingly. In 
Fig. 57 is shown a design of an inscription in which the first 
and last words are most important, and from which, eight 
words therefore could be taken, and still in effect, the principal 
feature of the whole inscription would remain "Brown's 
Shoes"; these words, therefore, should have the greatest 
prominence by making them large and of a sol id- stroke letter. 



48 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



STENCIL PATTERNS. 



PURPOSE OP STENCILS. 

95. Letter Stencils. — The letterer is sometimes forced 
into competition with the printer, especially when handling a 
large order for advertising signs ; the method of hand work, 
therefore, must be laid aside for something that will have the 
effect of hand work, and still be accomplished with more 
rapidity, observing, at the same time, cleanliness and finish 
when the work is completed. The stencil pattern most effectu- 
ally fills this place, and is made to stencil either the letter or 
the background. The stencil for the former purpose is made by 
cutting out of paper or other material the greater portion of the 
letter, but allowing - parts called ' ' ties ' ' to remain, as these tie 
the inside of the letter and parts likely to curl up when in use. 
A second stencil is also required, which is laid over the work 
done by the first stencil when it has dried, thereby covering up 
the spaces left by the ties, and thus making a solid and com- 
plete letter. The same rule is observed in regard to the ' ' cut- 
ting-in" stencils, which are used to make the background, and 
leave the letters the original color of the surface on which the 
color is spread. Large ties are used for ' ' cutting-in ' ' stencils, 
reaching from the letter to the edge of the stencil or border. 
A second stencil, so cut as to overlap the edges of the ties, is 
also used, thereby completing the entire background, leaving 
the letter clear and distinct. 

96. Variegated Grounds for Stenciled Letters. — The 

ground having been prepared and the inscription designed, 
the spaces occupied by each line of letters can be blended — a 
process known among letterers as variegated stenciling. This is 
accomplished by laying various colors on a ground, and blend- 
ing them together. As colors are too strong for this purpose, 
two or three delicate tints are used, and are laid on hori- 
zontally, and without regard to where the color is placed, 
except where the letters show. In all cases, the selection of 



§1 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 49 

the tints used to variegate the letters should be governed by the 
color to be used for the background, according to the rules of 
harmony and contrast. 

MATERIAL FOE STEXCILS. 

97. Paper. — The toughest medium- weight Manila paper 
should be used for stencils, oiled thoroughly with boiled linseed 
oil, and allowed to stand at least twenty-four hours before 
coating both sides thinly with orange shellac. If a light 
quality of fiber board is used, no preparation is necessary. A 
sheet of glass laid on a perfectly even table provides a surface 
on which the stencil can be cut with a good steel knife 
sharpened to a thin point. It is well to mark the ties with 
some bright color, to avoid cutting through them, as a single tie 
cut through destroys the whole stencil, and an imperfect stencil 
will cause more bother in its use than it is worth. It is best, 
therefore, never to use a patched or repaired stencil. 

98. Tin-Foil Stencils. — Tin- foil stencils for glass sign 
printing are designed and cut in the same way as the paper. 
A roller only is used in operating this stencil, while either brush 
or roller can be used with the paper stencil. A large soft 
brush will produce better results than a stiff brush, and be less 
likely to destroy the pattern. In dipping the brush in color, 
great care should be used to rub it out well, so that but little 
remains before applying to the stencil. This is the secret of 
cleanliness in stenciling. 

99. Cutting Stencils. — Figs. 58 and 59 show one method 
of cutting stencils. First, Fig. 58 shows the stencil that makes 
the letter, allowing ties to remain where most strength is needed 
for the preservation of the stencil. This stencil being com- 
pleted, a small triangle is cut in each corner, shown at a, called 
the register ', or guide, by which the stencil can always be placed 
in proper position. This stencil is placed on material prepared 
for the No. 2 stencil, as shown in Fig. 59. Letters are either 
marked or stenciled with a brush, which should be almost free 
from color, so that the second stencil for the ties can be cut out, 



50 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



§1 



allowing enough lap to fully insure its covering the open space, 
as shown in Fig. 59. Register, or guide, marks are cut in this 
stencil also, though these marks are never used except where a 
border color is to be placed afterwards, and serve only for 





Fig. 59. 



a second stencil. The edge or corner of a sign will, in most 
cases, serve as a guide in stenciling. Ties should always be cut 
so as to do away with points or projections as well as to secure 
strength where needed. If these rules are not followed, serious 
difficulty will be experienced when using a stencil, and may 
necessitate the making of a new stencil before the first one has 
been made to fully serve its purpose. 



100. Background Stencils. 




Fig. 60. 
more strength where needed. 



In 



To make stencils for back- 
grounds, everything is 
reversed from the first 
form. The letters must 
be covered, and all ties 
cut so as to keep these 
letters w here they 
belong. If a border is 
required, we must treat 
it the same as a letter. 
The ties must be cut 
wider on border edge, 
as they thereby give 

making this stencil it is 



§ 1 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 51 

better to have too many ties than leave one place weak. 
The general tendency is to leave one or more such places 
in this form of stencil. Fig. 60 shows two letters R, 0, and 
the ties necessary for strength and protection. Fig. 61 shows 
the No. 2 stencil, or the one to be used to cover spaces left 
by the ties of No. 1 ; the parts to be cut out are represented by 
the shaded spaces. 

101. Sign Stenciling. — Stenciled signs are often relieved 
by a few touches of hand work, either in outlining the letters 
or by artistically using some bright coloring that produces the 
effect of study and labor. This is often accomplished by shading 
or ornamentation. For stencil work, a color must be used of a 
slow-drying nature, otherwise the stencil will soon become 
clogged and more liable to become broken. There is also 
danger of using color too thin, and thus causing it to flow 
underneath the edge of the letter, thereby destroying the 
cleanliness of the work. 

102. Cleaning* Stencils. — The stencil must be cleaned 
often when in use. Not more than five or six signs should be 
stenciled before cleaning the stencil, which may be done by 

laying it face down on - — 

a clean board or other 
surface and rubbing well 
on back with a cloth 
rolled in ball shape. 
The stencil must be 
thoroughly cleaned with 
benzine after using, and 
never put away with 
any color remaining on 
it. This if neglected 






will either cause the 

stencil to break easily, or the color to flow underneath by the 
extra thickness of the dried color. Color left to dry on 
the stencil often warps it so as to render it practically useless, 
or cause the letterer much unnecessary trouble. 






52 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



GEOMETRICAL FIGURES. 



TRIANGLES. 

103. Definition of Triangle. — A triangle is a closed 
figure having three angles and three straight sides. 

104. Isosceles Triangles. — An isosceles triangle has 
two equal sides and two equal angles (Fig. 62). The length of 





Fig. 62. 



Fig. 63. 



the third side is usually different from that of the two equal 
sides, and is called the base. The term base is, however, 
applied without distinction to any side on which a triangle is 
supposed to stand. 

105. Altitude. — Whatever side is taken as the base of a 
triangle, the altitude, or height, of the triangle is the perpen- 




FlG. 64 



dicular distance from the base to the vertex of the opposite 
angle. That vertex is also called the apex of the triangle. 

106. Angular Pediment. — When the height of an 
isosceles triangle is short in comparison with the base, the 
triangle is called an angular pediment (Fig. 63). 

107. Gable. — A gable is an isosceles triangle whose equal 
sides differ but little from the third side (see Fig. 64). Gables, 
however, may also have the shape of Fig. 65. 



1 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



53 



108. Equilateral Triangle. — An equilateral triangle 
has three equal sides and three angles, as in Fig. 66, which is 
made up of equilateral triangles. 



109. Right- Angled Triangle. — A right-angled triangle 

is one having one right angle 
(Fig. 67). The side opposite the 
right angle is the longest, and is 
called the hypotenuse. 





Fig. 67. 



A triangle cannot have more than one right angle, nor more 
than one obtuse angle ; that is, if one of the angles is either 
right or obtuse, the others must be acute. 



CIRCLES. 

110. Definition of Circle. — A ciroie is a closed figure, 
all the points of whose outline are at the same distance from a 
point within called the center (Fig. 68). The term circle is 
applied both to the curved outline of the figure and to the 
space enclosed by it ; but the curved outline 

is more commonly called the circumference of /" \ 

the circle. / 

111. Radius and Diameter. — The dis- \ / 
tance from the center of a circle to any point \ /' 
on the circumference is called the radius of 
the circle. 

A line through the center of a circle, and having its ends 
on the circumference, is called a diameter. In Fig. 69, is the 
center of the circle, B, D, A, and C are radii, A B and 
CD are diameters. 



Fig. 68 



54 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



1 



Every diameter is equal to two radii, and divides the circle 
into two equal parts, or semicircles, and the circumference into 
two semi-circumferences. 

Two diameters, perpendicular to each other as A B and CD, 
divide the circumference into four equal parts called quadrants. 

112. A Curve. — A curved line, or a curve, is a line no 
part of which is straight ; it may be 
imagined to be formed by the bending 
^ of a straight line. Any portion of a 
\™ curve is called an arc. 




113. A Circular Arc. — A circular 
arc is any part of a circumference. 
Circular arcs having the same center, 
but different radii, are called parallel arcs. 
They are inside one another. They are 
also called concentric, which means "with the same center." 



OKNAMEXTAL CURVES. 

114. An Ogee. — An ogee is a line curved in two ways, 
having, approximately, the form of the letter S, either in its 



Fig. 70. 



Fig. 71. 



natural position, as in Fig. 70, or turned over, as in Fig. 71. 
The two parts of an ogee may be circular arcs, but arcs of other 





Fig. 73. 

curves give a better effect, 
and is called a swell line. 



Fig. 74. 

Fig. 72 is made up of two ogees, 



mm 



§1 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



55 



115. A Scroll. — A scroll is a winding curve, such as 
shown in Fig. 73. 

116. A Loop. — A loop (Fig. 74) consists of two curves 
similar to the corresponding parts of right and left scrolls, 
connected as shown. 



THE ELLIPSE. 

117. Methods of Describing* an Ellipse. — There are 
many ways of making or describing an ellipse, some of which 
are quite complicated. For designing purposes, exclusive of 
architectural work, a knowledge of two or three methods will 
serve every purpose, and fill the needs of the average letterer 
and designer. The simplest method is by means of two tacks 
and a string ; or, if needed for landscape gardening or other 
large-proportioned work, use hemp cord and nails or pegs. 
Draw a horizontal line, and intersect equally with a vertical 
line ; point off on the horizontal line the length of ellipse 
desired ; divide the horizontal line, from this point to the verti- 
cal line, into four equal parts, and place the tack on the third 
point from the vertical on 
either side ; place the other 
tack also in a corresponding- 
position opposite ; place a 
string around both tacks, 
and tie the ends together 
at the point farthest from 
the vertical on the hori- 
zontal line ; place lead pencil 
inside and follow around, 
and we have a perfect ellipse 
as a result, as shown in 
Fig. 75. By moving the tacks farther away from the vertical 
line, the ellipse is elongated, if the same string be used. 

118. To draw the ellipse shown in Fig. 76, construct two 
squares, and draw lines from the corners intersecting in the cen- 
ter of each square ; from this point of intersection, describe the 




5Q 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



§1 



arcs, with compass from a to b ; from the points c, describe 
upper and lower lines from a to a and b to b. 



119. Another simple form 




Fig. 76. 

meeting at the point b ; from 
from a to a, top and bot- 
tom, and the resulting 
figure will be an approxi- 
mate ellipse. The ellipse 
is sometimes spoken of as 
an oval. This word, how- 
ever, is a misnomer, as the 
oval derives its name from 
the Latin ovum, meaning 
"an egg," and its shape 
is the outline of an egg. 
Never refer to the oval there- 
fore as an egg-shaped oval, 
for the statement would 
round circle. 



of the ellipse is made by 
describing two circles, which 
together form the length 
of the ellipse, and drawing 
a horizontal line through 
the centers of both circles, 
as in Fig. 77 ; each semi- 
circle is then divided into 
three equal parts, as at 
a, a, a, a, and a line is 
drawn from each through 
the center of each circle, 
this point describe the curve 




be equivalent to speaking of a 



MODIFICATIONS OF THE FUNDAMENTAL STYLES. 

120. The various styles of alphabet included in this course 
are known as the fundamental styles, from which arise other 
styles that, though they resemble the above somewhat, have so 
little characteristic modification that they are scarcely worth 
our present consideration. Moreover, these alphabets are of 



§1 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 57 

little advantage to the student, but to avoid the danger of con- 
fusion, we will briefly refer to a few of the principal varieties. 

121. Latin Roman. — The characteristic feature of the 
original Latin Roman alphabet was its irregularity, which is 
plainly shown on the Arch of Titus, Fig. 1. No space is 
allowed between the words, the separation being implied by a 
dot on a line with the center of the letter. The tail of the R 
and the Q often projects the full width of the letter. The 
letter V was also employed to express the sound of U, but its 
modern use in that capacity by some designers is erroneous. 
The other sound of this character in Latin resembles that of 
our W, having somewhat the sound of the V instead of the 
U. Hence, the origin of the W, which is not derived from 
U but from V, and originally written VV, expressed by two 
separate characters. 

122. Ancient Roman. — The Ancient Roman is the 
prototype of our present French Roman, but in many ways is 
so departed from in modern practice that some of the modified 
forms of letters have become more familiar than the originals. 

A H 

(a) <*>> 

Fig. 78. 

This can be readily seen in the letter A, Fig. 78, where (a) is 
the original form and (b) the modification. 

123. Antique Egyptian. — There' are several forms of 
each letter of the Antique Egyptian, which if seen by the 
student in connection with the regular or normal letter would 
tend to confuse him, or at least cause him to inquire why 
he should observe any system or regularity of form. The law 
of uniformity is, in lettering, what the order is in architecture ; 
each must be closely followed, or to the skilled eye the work is 
subject to criticism. These styles, therefore, must not be con- 
fused. If one form is adopted there must be strict adherence 



58 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



§1 



to that form throughout the lettering of the design. This may 

be more clearly shown by two or three of these forms of the 

capital letters and their corresponding lower case. When 

my v ^ the slanting stroke is 

X\ I ^^ f\ ^\ I used in such letters as 

/ v ^\ f \ V-/ I H ' M > N > and v > [t also 

4 ^ V^l-^^V>^^ K- occurs in many of the 



FlG - 79 - lower-case letters, as a, d, 

h, m, n, and u, as the letters N, a, d, in Fig. 79, will show. 
The letter o is sometimes used in this style, as here shown, 
and the letter t is crossed above the line. 

124. Other Forms of Antique Egyptian. — Another 
form of the Antique Egyptian style is shown in the curved 
stroke, in place of the horizontal middle stroke, of many capital 






Fig. 80. 



Fig. 81. 



and lower-case letters, as in the E and t in Fig. 80; while a 
change in the spur of the horizontal strokes changes the charac- 
ter of the entire letter, as shown in the letters L and T, Fig. 81. 
There are many other slight departures 
from the normal style, one of which occurs 
in the middle bar of the A and H, as 
shown in Fig. 82. 

There is still another form of letter that 
belongs to the Plain Egyptian style. This 
form is simple in its construction, and does 
not bear sufficient distinction to classify it 
with the fundamental styles ; but in one respect, this form of 
letter is closely allied to the French Roman, and the similarity 
is shown in its having the heavy and light line, as shown 
in Fig. 83.- 




Fig. 82. 



§ 1 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 59 

A few letters of this style are therefore shown to give the 
student an idea of the comparative width of the stroke and 
fine line. The latter should not exceed J- that of the stroke. 
There is almost unlimited license granted in forming these 



"IS 



Fig. 83. 

letters, as shown in the two letters T and E. In making 
these letters never j)lace a spur on any part of the letter, as this 
at once throws the characteristic feature of the style in favor of 
the French Roman ; and to widen the fine line to nearly that 
of the stroke brings it within classification limits of the 
Egyptian. Never show a suggestion of a straight line on 
the inside of the round letters, but always make a perfect ellipse 
or a symmetrical curve. This letter holds an important place 
with our modern designers, but a knowledge of the Egyptian 
and French Roman only is necessary to produce this modifi- 
cation. This is likewise true of all letters used. By a thorough 
knowledge of the few fundamental styles, the student can readily 
trace all variations arising from these to their parent style. 

125. Boston Roman. — The Boston Roman has a slight 
variation from the normal form shown in 
Plate 14 which occurs in the spur only, 
but which gives it a marked difference in 
appearance from the regular style. The 
spur, instead of being finished on the end, 
as shown in Plate entitled Boston Roman, 

is cut off on an angle of about 45°, as shown in Fig. 84. 

126. Antique Half Block. — A third style, known as the 
Antique Half Block, has two or three varieties. Such of 
the capitals, as well as the small letters, as possess a middle 
stroke have, this stroke changed to an angle of 60°. In one 




60 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. §1 

variety the short strokes of the lower-case letters are cut on the 
same angle as the middle stroke, as shown in Fig. 85, the angle 

Peas Fear 

Fig. 85. Fig. 86. 

of the s being directly opposite. Another variety of this letter 
is the same as Fig. 85, except that the short strokes are altered 
in appearance, and arc finished with a fine line and a dot, as 

Beauhj 



Fig. 87. 



shown in Fig. 86. This form of letter can be spaced more 
closely than the regular style used in condensed spaces, and 
the variety shown in Fig. 87 requires even less space than either 

EEC 

(a) (b) (c) 

Fig. 88. 

of the others ; and, as the corners are not cut off, the letter 
possesses a square, compact appearance, somewhat relieved of 
severity by the finishing of the corners with a slight spur. The 



§1 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



61 



same rule of formation applies to capitals as well as to lower- 
case letters, except the middle bars of E and F, which are 
always horizontal. 

127. French. Roman. — The French Roman is also in 
turn slightly changed, giving rise to several distinct varieties, as 
shown in Fig. 88. In the letter E, shown at (a), the only 
difference from the Ancient Roman style 
is the spur that projects at a right angle 
from the horizontal lines top and bottom. 
In the letter shown at (6) the spurs 
are the same as at (a), except those of 
the main upright strokes, which are 
finished with a flat end. The round 
letter of this style is shown at (c). 

128. The Flemish.— The Flemish 
or Dutch, so closely resembling the Ger- 
man Text, is another style that will not 
be considered in this course. The characteristic feature of this 
alphabet is the diamond, dot, and plain vertical stroke and fine 
line, as shown in Fig. 89, its other features being practically the 
same as the German style. In the lower-case very little change 




Fig. 89. 




Fig. 90. 



occurs except the ball, which is added to many of the long- 
stroke letters, as shown in the figure. 



129. Variations. — There are so many styles of letters, 
arising from some simple idea, that any student of lettering may 
apply to a fundamental style ; and such ideas are so numerous, 
that it will be impossible to call attention to more than one or 
two of these in conclusion. 



62 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



The curved stroke is one such style, and is shown by the 
letters D, R, U, G, in Fig. 90. Another of these styles is pro- 

TEL 

Fig. 91. 

duced by curving the spur and horizontal strokes forming the 
block letters, especially the full block, as shown in Fig. 91. 

Note. — The modifications considered in the foregoing pages of this Instruc- 
tion Paper refer to fundamental styles, many of which the student will not have 
occasion to refer to, or make comparisons with until well advanced in Iris 
course, we would advise, therefore, that a study of these variations be deferred 
until the plates mentioned in this connection hare been received, and the funda- 
mental styles have become familiar to the student. 



MECHANICAL LETTERING. 

130. When instruments such as the T square, triangles, 
compasses, etc. are used to execute lettering, it is called 
mechanical lettering, as distinguished from freehand lettering, 




Fig. 92. 



which is executed with the pen or brush, unaided by anything 
except the judgment of the eye. 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



63 



131. All the instruments and materials required for this 
course in lettering are mentioned in the following descriptions : 

The drawing board should be made of well-seasoned 
straight- grained pine, the grain running lengthwise. For this 
course, the student will need a board of about the following 
dimensions : length over all, 21 inches ; width, 16 inches ; the 
thickness may be made about J inch. There should be two 
end-pieces If inches wide, as shown in Fig. 92, which are fast- 
ened to the board proper by means of nails or screws. One or 
both of these pieces should be perfectly straight. 




Fig. 93. 



A better board is shown in Fig. 93 ; here the end-pieces are 
fastened to the board by a glued matched joint in addition to 
the nails or screws, and there are two cleats on the bottom 
1 inch by \ inch, extending the whole width of the board. 
The cleats raise the board from the table and make it easier to 
change in position. The board is placed so that a straight end- 
piece is at the left of the draftsman, as shown in Fig. 93. 



132. The T square is used for drawing horizontal straight 
lines. The head A is placed against the left-hand edge of the 



64 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



§1 



board, as shown in Fig. 94. The upper edge C of the blade B 
is brought very near to the point through which it is desired to 
pass the line, so that the straight edge C of the blade may be 



■ |— ■■■— : "a I 
'*[ B .© 

111° • • °| 



Fig. 94. 



used as a guide for the pen or pencil. It is evident that all 
lines drawn in this manner will be parallel. 

Vertical lines are drawn by means of triangles. The triangles 
most generally used are shown in Figs. 95 and 96. Each has 
one right angle, marked 90° in the figures. Fig. 95 has two 





Fig. 95. 



Fig. 96. 



angles of 45° each, and Fig. 96 one of 60° and one of 30°. 
They are called Jf5° and 60° triangles, respectively. To draw a 
vertical line, place the T square in position to draw a horizontal 
line, and lay the triangle against it, so as to form a right angle. 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



65 



Hold both T square and triangle lightly with the left hand, so 
as to keep them from slipping, and draw the line with the pen 
or pencil held in the right hand, and against the edge of the 
triangle. Fig. 97 shows the 
triangles and T square in 
position. 

133. For drawing par- 
allel lines that are neither 
vertical nor horizontal, the 
simplest and best way, 
when the lines are near 
together, is to place one 
edge of a triangle, as a b, 
Fig. 98, on the given line c d, and lay the other triangle, as B, 
against one of the two edges, holding it fast with the left hand ; 
then move the triangle A along the edge of B. The edge a b will 
be parallel to the line c d ; and when the edge a b reaches the 
point g, through which it is desired to draw the parallel line, 
hold both triangles stationary with the left hand, and draw the 
line cf by passing the pencil along the edge a b. Should 




Fig. 97. 




Fig. 93. 



the triangle A extend too far beyond the edge of the triangle B 
after a number of lines have been drawn, hold A stationary with 
the left hand and shift B along the edge of A with the right 
hand, and then proceed as before. 



66 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



134. A line may be drawn at right angles to another line 
which is neither vertical nor horizontal, as illustrated in Fig. 99. 
Let cd be the given line (shown at the left-hand side). Place 
one of the shorter edges, as a b, of the triangle B so that it will 
coincide with the line cd; then, keeping the triangle in this 
position, place the triangle A so that its long edge will come 
against the long edge of B. Now, holding A securely in place 
with the left hand, slide B along the edge of A with the right 
hand, when the lines hi, mn, etc. may be drawn perpendicular 
to cd along the edge bf of the triangle B. The dotted lines 




Fig. 99. 

show the position of the triangle B when moved along the 
edge of A. 

135. The right-hand portion of Fig. 99 shows another 
method of accomplishing the same result, and illustrates how 
the triangles may be used for drawing a rectangular figure, 
when the sides of the figure make an angle with the T square 
such that the latter cannot be used. 

Let the side c d of the figure be given. Place the long side of 
the triangle B so as to coincide with the line c d, and bring the 
triangle A into position against the lower side of B, as shown. 
Now, holding the triangle A in place with the left hand, revolve 
B so that its other short edge will rest against the long edge J, 



§1 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



67 



as shown in the clotted position at B' . The parallel lines ce 
and df may now be drawn through the points e and d by sliding 
the triangle B on the triangle A, as described in connection 
with Fig. 98. Measure off the required width of the figure on 
the line c e, reverse the triangle B again to its original position, 
still holding the triangle A in a fixed position with the left 
hand, and slide B upon A until the long edge of B passes 
through e. Draw the line ef through the point e, and ef will 
be parallel to c d. The student should practice with his 
triangles before beginning drawing. 



136. The compasses, next to the T square and triangles, 
arc used more than any other 
instrument. A pencil and a pen 
point are provided, as shown in 
Fig. 100, either of which may be 
inserted into a socket in one leg 
of the instrument, for the draw- 
ing of circles in pencil or ink. 
The other leg is fitted with a 
needle point, which acts as the 
center about which the circle is 
drawn. In all good instruments, 
the needle point itself is a sepa- 
rate piece of round steel wire, 
held in place in a socket pro- 
vided at the end of the leg. 
The wire should have a square 
shoulder at its lower end, below 
which a fine, needle-like point 
projects. The lengthening bar, also 
shown in the figure, is used to 
extend the leg carrying the pen 
and the pencil points when circles 
of large radii are to be drawn. 

The joint at the top of the compasses should hold the legs 
firmly in any position, and at the same time should permit their 
being opened or closed with one hand. The joint may be 




Fig. 100. 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



§1 



tightened or loosened by means of a screwdriver or wrench, 
which accompanies the compasses. 

It will be noticed in Fig. 100 that each' leg of the compasses 
is jointed ; this is done so that the compass points may always 
be kept perpendicular to the paper when drawing circles, as in 
Fig. 102. 

137. The following suggestions for handling the compasses 
should be carefully observed by those that are beginning the 
subject of drawing. Any draftsman or letterer that handles 
his instruments awkwardly will create a bad impression, no 




Fig. 101. 

matter how good a workman he may be. The tendency of all 
beginners is to use both hands for operating the compasses. 
This is to be avoided. The student should learn at the start to 
open and close them with one hand, holding them as shown in 
Fig. 101, with the needle-point leg resting between the thumb 
and the fourth ringer, and the other leg between the middle 
finger and the forefinger. When drawing circles, hold the 
compasses lightly at the top between the thumb and forefinger, 
or thumb, forefinger, and middle finger, as in Fig. 102. Another 
case where both hands should not be used is in locating the 
needle point at a point on the drawing about which the circle is 
to be drawn, unless the left hand is used merely to steady the 
needle point. Hold the compasses as shown in Fig. 101, and 



1 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



69 



incline them until the under side of the hand rests upon the 
paper. This will steady the hand so that the needle point can 
be brought to exactly the right place on the drawing. Having 
placed the needle at the desired point, and with it still resting 
on the paper, the pen or pencil point may be moved out or in 
to any desired radius, as indicated in Fig. 101. When the 
lengthening bar is used, both hands must be employed. 

138. The compasses must be handled in such a manner 
that the needle point will not dig large holes in the paper. 




Fig. 102. 

Keep the needle point adjusted so that it will be perpendicular 
to the paper, when drawing circles, and do not bear upon it. A 
slight pressure will be necessary on the pen or pencil point, but 
not on the needle point. 

139. The dividers, shown in Fig. 103, are used for laying 
off distances upon a drawing, or for dividing straight lines or 
circles into parts. The points of the dividers should be very 
sharp, so that they will not punch holes in the paper larger 



70 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. § 1 

•than is absolutely necessary to be seen. Compasses are some- 
times furnished with two steel divider points, besides the pen 
and pencil points, so that the instrument may be used either as 
compasses or dividers. This is the kind illustrated in Fig. 103. 
When using the dividers to space a line or circle into a number 
of equal parts, hold them at the top between the thumb and the 
forefinger, as when using the compasses, and step off the spaces, 
turning the instrument alternately to the right and left. If the 
line or circle does not space exactly, vary the distance between 
the divider points and try again ; so continue until it is spaced 
equally. When spacing in this manner, great care must be 
exercised not to press the divider points into the paper ; for, if 




Fig. 103. 
the points enter the paper, the spacing can never be accurately 
done. The student should satisfy himself of the truth of this 
statement by actual trial. 

140. Drawing Paper and Pencils. — The drawing, 
paper required? te this series of lessons, is Whatman's hot- 
pressed \ Royal, the size of which is 12 in. X 19 in. It takes ink 
well, and withstands considerable erasing. The paper is 
secured to the drawing board by means of thumbtacks. Four 
are usually sufficient — one at each corner of the sheet. Place a 
piece of paper on the drawing board, and press a thumbtack 
through one of the corners about J or f of an inch from each 
edge. Place the T square in position for drawing a horizontal 
line, as before explained, and straighten the paper so that its 
upper edge will be parallel to the edge of the T-square blade. 
Pull the corner diagonally opposite that in which the thumb- 
tack was placed, so as to stretch the paper slightly, and push in 
another thumbtack. Do the same with the remaining two 
corners. For drawing in pencil, a Dixon's Artists' H pencil, 
No. 217 (commonly called a No. 4 Dixon's Artists') may bo 



1 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



71 



used. The pencil should be sharpened to a medium point. 
Cut the wood away so as to leave about J or § of an inch of the 
lead projecting ; then finish the point by rubbing it against a 
fine file or a piece of fine emery cloth or sandpaper that has 
been fastened to a flat stick. The lead for the compasses should 
be sharpened to a flat or chisel-shaped point. Be sure that the 




Tig. 104. 

compass lead is so secured that, when circles are struck in either 
direction, but one line will be drawn with the same radius and center. 

141. Inking-. — For drawing ink lines other than arcs of 
circles, the ruling pen (or right-line pen, as it is sometimes 
called) is used. It should be held as nearly perpendicular to 
the board as possible, with the hand in the position shown in 
Figs. 104 and 105, bearing lightly on the T square or triangle, 
against the edge of which the line is drawn. After a little 
practice, this position will become natural, and no difficulty 
will be experienced. 

142. The beginner will find that it is not always easy to 
make smooth lines. If the pen is held so that only one blade 
bears on the paper when drawing, the line will almost invariably 



72 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



be ragged on the edge where the blade does not bear. When 
held at right angles to the paper, as in Fig. 105, however, 
both blades will rest on the paper, and if the pen is in good con- 
dition, smooth lines will result. The pen must not be pressed 
against the edge of the T square or triangle, as the blades will 
then close together, making the line uneven. The edge should 
serve simply as a guide. 

In drawing circles with the compass pen, the same care 
should be taken to keep the blades perpendicular to the paper 




Fig. 105. 

by means of the adjustment at the joint. In both the ruling 
pen and the compass pen, the width of the lines can be altered 
by means of the screw which holds the blades together. 

143. Drawing Ink. — The ink used should be Higgins' 
waterproof liquid India ink. A quill is attached to the cork of 
every bottle of this ink, by means of which the pen may be 
filled. Dip the quill into the ink, and then pass the end of it 
between the blades of the drawing pen. Do not put too much 
ink in the pen, not more than enough to fill it for a quarter of 
an inch along the blades, otherwise the ink is liable to drop. 
Many draftsmen prefer to use stick India ink; and, for lettering 



§ 1 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 73 

purposes, this is to be preferred to the prepared liquid ink 
recommended above. In case the stick ink is bought, put 
enough water in a shallow dish (a common individual butter 
plate will do) to make enough ink for the drawing ; then place 
one end of the stick in the water, and grind by giving the stick 
a circular motion. Do not bear hard upon the stick. Test the 
ink occasionally to see if it is black. Draw a fine line with the 
pen, and hold the paper in a strong light. If it shows brown 
(or gray), grind a while longer, and test again. Keep grinding 
until a fine line shows black, which will usually take from 
fifteen minutes to half an hour, depending on the quantity of 
water used. The ink should always be kept well covered with a 
flat plate of some kind, to keep out the dust and prevent evapo- 
ration. The drawing pen may be filled by dipping an ordinary 
writing pen into the ink and drawing it through the blades, as 
previously described when using the quill. If Higgins' ink is 
used, all the lines on all the drawings will be of the same color, 
and no time will be lost in grinding. If stick ink is used, it is 
poor economy to buy a cheap stick. A small stick of the best 
quality, costing, say, a dollar, will last as long, perhaps, as five 
dollars' worth of liquid ink. The only reason for using liquid 
ink is that all lines are then sure to be of equal blackness, and 
time is saved in grinding. 

Trouble will probably be caused by the ink drying between 
the blades and refusing to flow, especially when drawing fine 
lines. The only remedy is to wipe out the pen frequently with 
a wet cloth. Do not lay the pen down for any great length of 
time, when it contains ink; wipe it out first. The ink may 
sometimes be started by moistening the end of the finger and 
touching it to the point, or by drawing a slip of paper between 
the ends of the blade. Always keep the bottle corked. 

144:. To Sharpen the Drawing- Pen. — When the 
ruling, or compass, pen becomes badly worn, it must be sharp- 
ened. For this purpose a fine oilstone should be used. If an 
oilstone is to be purchased, a small, flat, close-grained stone 
should be obtained, those having a triangular section being 
preferable, as the narrow edge can be used on the inside of the 



74 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. §1 

blades in case the latter are not made to swing apart so as to 
permit the nse of a thicker edge. 

The first step in sharpening is to screw the blades together, 
and, holding the pen perpendicular to the oilstone, to draw it 
back and forth over the stone, changing the slope of the pen 
from downward and to the right to downward and to the left 
for each movement of the pen to the right and left. The object 
of this is to bring the blades to exactly the same length and 
shape, and to round them nicely at the point. 

This process, of course, makes the edges even duller than 
before. To sharpen, separate the points by means of the screw, 
and rub one of the blades to and from the operator in a straight 
line, giving the pen a slight twisting motion at the same time, 
and holding it at an angle of about 15° with the face of the 
stone. Repeat the process for the other blade. To be in good 
condition the edges should be fairly sharp and smooth, but not 
sharp enough to cut the paper. All the sharpening must be done 
on the outside of the blades. The inside of the blades should be 
rubbed on the stone only enough to remove any burr that may 
have been formed. Anything more than this will be likely to 
injure the pen. The whole operation must be done very 
carefully, bearing on lightly, as it is easy to spoil a pen in the 
process. Examine the points frequently, and keep at work 
until the pen will draw both fine lines and smooth heavy lines. 



HOW THE WORK SHOULD BE SENT. 

145. For the letter plates of this Course, copies of the 
plates will be sent jo\x as you need them. The tube w r e send 
you with this Paper should be used by you for sending us your 
drawing of Plate I upon finishing it. Send one plate to us at 
a time. Thus, after you finish the first plate, send it to us, and 
then start on the second plate. In the meantime Ave will 
return the first plate to you. On your receiving back the first 
plate from us, you should carefully note all corrections and 
suggestions that may be sent with it, and observe them when 
drawing the succeeding plates. On no account send us the 
second plate until you have received the first one back. Upon 



1 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



finishing the second plate, send this to us and start on the third 
plate, and in the meantime we will return the second plate to 
you. Do this with all the drawing plates in the Course. 

It is very essential that you strictly comply with these direc- 
tions ; since, otherwise, it will be impossible for us to point out 
your mistakes to jou. This procedure should be strictly adhered 
to while you are drawing the first plates of the Course — it will 
enable you to make rapid progress. Do not be discouraged if 
there are a large number of corrections on your early plates ; 
we are merely pointing out ways in which the drawing or letter- 
ing can be improved, so that your later plates may be as nearly 
perfect as they can be made. No one can attain proficiency 
unless the work is criticized, and we are doing our best to help 
you to succeed. We should not be doing our duty if we did 
not point out the defects. The number of corrections is no 
indication of our appreciation of the merits of the drawing. 

On all plates that you send to us, write your name and 
address in full in lead pencil on the back of the plates. ' This 
should in no case be omitted, as delays in the return of your 
work will otherwise surely occur. 



PLATES. 

146. Preliminary Directions. — The size of each plate 
over all will be 11 \ in. X 18J- in. Whenever any dimensions are 
specified, they should be laid off as accurately as possible. All 
drawings should be made as neat as possible, and the penciling 
entirely finished before inking in any part of it. The hands 
should be perfectly clean, and should not touch the paper 
except when necessar}^. No lines should be erased except 
when absolutely necessary ; for, whenever a line has once been 
erased, the dirt flying around in the air and constantly falling 
on the drawing will stick to any spot where an erasure has 
been made, and render it very difficult, if not impossible, to 
entirely remove it. For this reason, all construction lines that 
are to be removed, or that are liable to be changed, should be 
drawn lightly, that the finish of the paper may not be destroyed 
when erasing them. 



Elements of Lettering 



Elements of Lettering. 



(1) (a) What name is given to the earliest form of 
writing? (b) By whom was it used? 

(2) What are "rustic" letters? 

(3) Name two styles of letters that came into existence 
prior to the 15th century. 

(4) What are "illuminated" letters? 

(5) What is meant by the term elongating ? 

(6) What class of people were skilful in the art of letter- 
ing during the period immediately preceding the 15th century? 

(7) What is meant by the term interlacing? 

(8) On what materials can transparent water color be used 
to the best advantage? 

(9) What is meant by a "part panel"? 

(10) What is the "stroke" of a letter? 

(11) What is meant by the term background? 

(12) What are "cut-in" letters? 

(13) On what side of the letter should the shade be 
placed ? 

(14) (a) W 7 hat is a "background stencil"? (6) How 
does this differ from the regular letter stencil? 

(15) What is meant by the term telescoping? 

(16) What two forms of numerals are used * in modern 
lettering? 

(17) What material is most suitable for making stencil 
patterns ? 

(18) For what special class of work are tin-foil stencils 
used ? 

(19) What style of brush is best adapted for use in 
stenciling ? 



ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 



(20) What styles of letters are best adapted for illuminated 
capitals ? 

(21) In cutting stencil patterns, what method is safest to 
follow in order to avoid the possibility of cutting off ties? 

(22) How is the design for the second stencil placed on the 
first to insure accuracy ? 

(23) What alphabet is the mother of all modern styles 
of writing? 

(24) About how many signs may be stenciled before the 
stencil pattern should be cleaned? 

(25) On what part of the letter should the highlight be 
placed ? 

(26) How was the letter W expressed when first intro- 
duced into the alphabet? 

(27) When letters are placed on an inclined panel, what 
position should they be given ? 

(28) What is meant by the term condensing f 

(29) What is the difference between mechanical and free- 
hand lettering? 

(30) What are the "ties" in stencil patterns? 

(31) In what way did the invention of the printing press 
directly benefit the art of writing? 

(32) On what angle should the shade of the letter be placed? 

(33) Of what importance is letter-face shading? 

(34) What is the "spur" of a letter? 

(35) Where would you place the possessive apostrophe in 
the following: "Mens and Boys Clothing"? 

(36) How is the block shade placed on a letter? 

(37) How many forms has the cast shadow? 

(38) What are the three chief classifications of letters? 

(39) When are colors applied in their dry state? 

(40) Name some of the styles of letters known exclusively 
as "American w r riting. " 

(41) For what purpose is the stencil pattern used? 



Index 



INDEX. 



A. 

Page. 

Alphabet, ancient Roman, Modification 

of 57 

antique Egyptian, Modifica- 
tion of 57 

half block, Modifica- 
tion of 59 

Boston Roman. Modification 

of "59 

Flemish 61 

French Roman, Modification 

of 61 

Greek '. 7 

" Hebrew 4 

" Latin 7 

" " Roman, Modification of 57 

" Phenician 6 

Samaritan 5 

Altitude of triangles 52 

Ancient Roman alphabet, Modification 

of 57 

Angular pediment 52 

Antique Egyptian alphabet, Modification 

of 57 

*' half block, Modification of 59 

Apostrophe, Origin of 18 

Appearance of spacing 17 

Arabic numerals 4 

Arc : 54 

B. 

Background 14 

stencils 50 

Beveled shading 26 

Block 13 

" shade 23 

Boston Roman alphabet, Modification of 59 

C. 

Card work 33 

Cast shadow 23 

Circle, Definition of 53 

" Diameter of 53 

Radius of 53 

Circular arc 54 

Classification of letters 2 

" 29 

Cleaning stencils 51 



Page. 

Colon 19 

Comma 18 

19 

Compasses 67 

Component parts of a letter 13 

Condensed letter, Example of 36 

Condensing 14 

-. 35 

Consonants 2 

Correct and incorrect spacing 14 

Cuneiform writing 3 

Curve 54 

Curves, Ornamental 54 

Cut-in letters, Points to be observed 28 

Use of 27 

Cutting in letters 27 

" stencils 49 

Cyma : 14 

D. 

Dash 20 

Decorations, Ecclesiastical 34 

Definition of circle 53 

" " triangle 52 

Designing inscriptions _ 46' 

Scope and importance of 39 

Diameter of circle 53 

Ditto marks 22 

Drawing board 63 

ink 72 

" pen, To sharpen 73 

the letters 12 

E. 

Ecclesiastical decorations 34 

Effects in lettering 35 

" produced by letter-face lighting 

and shading 25 

Egyptian, half block, and French Roman 16 

Elements of Lettering 1 

Ellipse 55 

Elliptical and round panels 44 

Elongating 14 

35 

letters 36 

Equilateral triangles 53 

Example of condensed letter 36 

Exclamation point 20 



INDEX. 



F. 

Page. 

Face of letter, Lighting and shading 25 

" " " Treatment of 25 

" ornamentation 31 

Figures, Geometrical 52 

Filling in and outlining 38 

Fine line 13 

Flemish alphabet 61 

Forms, Ornamental 30 

Freehand and instrumental drawing, 

Definitions of. 12 

" mechanical lettering 12 

French Roman, Egyptian, and half block 16 

" " Modification of 61 

Full block and Roman 16 

Fundamental styles 2 

" " Modifications of 56 

G. 

Gable 52 

General rules 10 

Geometrical figures 52 

Greek alphabet 7 

Grotesque letters 31 

Grounds for stencil letters 48 

" Variegated 48 

H. 

Half block, Egyptian, and French Roman 16 

Heavy highlight 26 

Hebrew alphabet 4 

Heraldic shield 35 

Highlight 27 

" Heavy 26 

History and general use of illuminated 

capitals 32 

of Alphabet 2 

How work should be sent 74 

Hyphen 21 

I. 

Ideograms 3 

Illuminated capitals. History and gen- 
eral use of 32 

Importance and scope of designing 39 

" of spacing 14 

Incorrect spacing 14 

Inking in 71 

Inscription designing 46 

Instrumental and freehand drawing, 

Definitions of 12 

Interlacing 35 

37 

Interrogation point 20 

Irregular-surface lettering 28 

Isosceles triangles 52 



Page. 

Latin alphabet 7 

" Roman alphabet, Modification of 57 

Left-side shading 22 

Letter-face lighting and shading Effects 

produced by 25 

" " ornamentation 31 

" stencils 48 

Lettering Effects in 35 

" Freehand and mechanical 12 

Irregular-surface 28 

" Mechanical 62 

plates 75 

Letters, Classification of 29 

" Component parts of 13 

Condensing 35 

Cutting in 27 

" Elongating 36 

Grotesque 31 

Ornamental 29 

Proportion of 46 

" Relief ornament 30 

" Spacing of 14 

Lighting and shading, Letter- face 25 

Light, Reflected 42 

Loop 55 

M. 

Material for stencils 49 

Materials required 11 

Mechanical and freehand lettering 12 

lettering 62 

" styles 12 

Method of describing an ellipse 55 

Modern styles 10 

Modification of ancient Roman alphabet 57 
" antique Egyptian alpha- 
bet 57 

half block 59 

" " Boston Roman alphabet 59 

" " French Roman alphabet 61 

" " fundamental styles 56 

" " Latin Roman alphabet... 57 

]S T . 

Numerals, Arabic 4 

" Roman 4 

O. 

Old English 9 

Origin of the apostrophe 18 

Ornamental curves 54 

Ornamental forms 30 

letters 29 

Ornamentation, Letter-face 31 

Outline 13 

Outlining and filling in 38 



INDEX. 



Page. 
P. 

Panels 42 

Elliptical and round 44 

Part 44 

Rectangular 42 

" Rococo 44 

Paper and pencils 70 

" stencils 49 

Parenthesis 21 

Part panels 44 

Patterns, Stencil 48 

Pediment, Angular 52 

Pencils and paper 70 

Pen. Ruling 71 

Period 19 

Phenician alphabet 6 

Preliminary directions for lettering 

plates 75 

Proportion of letters 46 

Punctuation 18 

Purpose of a drawing 12 

" " course 1 

" " stencils 48 

Q. 

Quotation marks 21 

R. 

Radius of circle 53 

Rectangular panels 42 

Reflected light 42 

Relief-ornament letters 30 

" shade 24 

Renaissance, Results of 8 

Ribbons 10 

Ribbon shading 41 

Right-angled triangle 53 

Rococo panels 44 

Roman and full block 16 

numerals 4 

Round and elliptical panels 44 

Rules for punctuation 19 

" General 10 

Ruling pen 71 

S. 

Samaritan alphabet 5 

Scope and importance of designing 39 

Scroll 55 

Semicolon.. 19 

Sending work 74 

Shade 13 

" Block 23 

Shade, Relief 24 

Shading 22 



Page. 

Shading Beveled 26 

" ribbons 41 

the left side 22 

Shadow, Cast 23 

Shield, Heraldic 35 

Show-card work 33 

Sign stenciling 51 

" stencils 51 

Simple combinations 39 

Spacing, Appearance of..... 17 

" Correct and incorrect 14 

" Importance of 14 

of letters 14 

Spur 13 

Stencil, Background 50 

" cutting 49 

patterns 48 

Stenciled letters, Grounds for. 48 

Stenciling, Sign 51 

Stencils, Cleaning 51 

" Material for 49 

" Paper 49 

" Purpose of :.... 48 

Tin-foil 49 

Stroke 13 

Styles, Fundamental 2 

Mechanical 12 

Modern ]0 

Variations of 61 

T. 

Telescoping 35 

37 

Tin-foil stencils 49 

To sharpen drawing pen 73 

Treatment of face of letter 25 

Triangle, Right-angled 53 

Triangles 52 

64 

Altitude of 52 

" Definition of 52 

" Equilateral 53 

" Isosceles 52 

T square..... 63 

TJ. 

Underscore 22 

Use of water colors 38 

V. 

Variations of styles 61 

Variegated grounds 48 

Vowels 2 

W. 

Water colors 38 

Width 13 



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